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\begin{filecontents}{references.bib}
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\end{filecontents}

\title{Epistemic Justice and Civilian Testimony in the Gaza Conflict (2023--2024)}

\author{ABC\\
Department of Computer Science\\
University of LLMs\\
}

\newcommand{\fix}{\marginpar{FIX}}
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\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This study examines testimonial credibility and epistemic justice in the Gaza conflict from October 2023 onward, using the ACLED Palestine-Israel Conflict Dataset to analyze how civilian voices are systematically validated or silenced within contexts of structural violence and media suppression. The research addresses the complexity of competing narratives, geopolitical interests, infrastructural targeting, and institutional gatekeeping that shape the reception of Palestinian accounts, creating conditions where civilian experiences are often dismissed or distorted, constituting structural epistemic injustice. A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative trend analysis with qualitative narrative coding provides insight into Palestinian lived experiences by integrating statistical indicators including Civilian Targeting Index (CTI), Infrastructure Destruction Rate (IDR), and Humanitarian Access Frequency (HAF) with thematic coding of narrative segments. This reveals patterns of epistemic agency, moral witnessing, and communicative resilience amid violence and dispossession. Analytic credibility is enhanced through methodological triangulation of distinct data components, pattern-matching quantitative trends with qualitative sentiment clusters, systematic coding procedures, and robustness checks for constructed indicators, while maintaining ethical rigor through the use of publicly available, anonymized data to center representational dignity and epistemic accountability. The study's primary timeframe covers October 2023 to April 2024, with findings suggesting structural relationships between violence intensity, infrastructural integrity, and the emotional resonance of testimony.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:intro}
The Gaza conflict from October 2023 onward provides a critical context for examining how civilian testimony functions within environments of structural violence and media suppression. This research investigates the construction of testimonial credibility and epistemic justice using the ACLED Palestine-Israel Conflict Dataset to analyze patterns of voice validation and silencing. The significance of this work lies in understanding how truth claims are negotiated when traditional verification mechanisms are compromised, and survival itself becomes an act of bearing witness \citep{zelizer2021bearing}.

The complexity of this issue stems from intersecting historical, social, and international dimensions. The Palestinian narrative has been shaped by prolonged conditions that subject civilian accounts to systematic doubt. Targeting of communication infrastructure and media personnel creates barriers to information flow, while international frameworks often fail to protect the epistemic rights of affected populations. These factors contribute to structural epistemic injustice \citep{fricker2007epistemic}, where certain groups are systematically denied credibility due to power asymmetries.

A mixed-methods approach combining quantitative trend analysis with qualitative narrative coding provides insight into Palestinian lived experiences. This methodology integrates statistical indicators with thematic analysis of testimonial content, revealing patterns that might be overlooked through purely quantitative or qualitative approaches. The research design follows established principles \citep{creswell2018research} and examines how communication adapts under conditions of duress, aligning with theories of communicative action within constrained environments \citep{habermas1984theory}.

The study addresses three research questions: First, how is testimonial credibility constructed or denied in Gaza's conflict narratives? Second, what contextual factors foster or hinder epistemic trust? Third, how does infrastructural suppression shape global reception of Palestinian testimony? These questions are examined through the theoretical lenses of epistemic justice \citep{fricker2007epistemic} and moral witnessing \citep{margalit2002ethics}, which provide frameworks for understanding the ethical dimensions of testimony in conflict zones.

This research makes several contributions to the field. It develops and operationalizes quantitative indicators including the Civilian Targeting Index (CTI), Infrastructure Destruction Rate (IDR), and Humanitarian Access Frequency (HAF) to systematically measure aspects of the conflict environment and their association with testimonial content. The study bridges quantitative conflict data analysis with qualitative narrative inquiry, addressing a gap in existing literature. It extends epistemic justice theory into networked conflict contexts, demonstrating how digital platforms transform witnessing practices. The research examines empirical associations between humanitarian access and testimonial content. Finally, it offers methodological innovations in triangulating different data types to enhance analytic credibility while transparently addressing the inherent limitations of secondary data analysis in conflict zones, including potential selection bias and the challenge of validating constructed metrics against independent ground truth.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section~\ref{sec:related} reviews related work in conflict reporting, epistemic justice, and mixed-methods research. Section~\ref{sec:background} provides necessary background on the Gaza conflict and theoretical frameworks. Section~\ref{sec:method} details the mixed-methods methodology, including data sources and analytical procedures. Section~\ref{sec:results} presents quantitative and qualitative findings, including temporal trends and thematic patterns. Section~\ref{sec:discussion} interprets these findings in relation to research questions and theoretical frameworks. Section~\ref{sec:conclusion} summarizes conclusions and suggests directions for future work.

The findings have implications for humanitarian policy, particularly regarding the protection of communication infrastructure in conflict zones and the development of media verification practices that acknowledge structural biases. For education, this research underscores the importance of incorporating diverse testimonial sources and contextualizing them within power dynamics. In cross-cultural understanding, the study highlights the need for frameworks that recognize the validity of lived experiences from conflict-affected populations while rigorously examining the conditions of knowledge production.

\section{Related Work}
\label{sec:related}
Research on conflict reporting has examined how media coverage shapes public understanding and policy responses to humanitarian crises \citep{iyengar1991is}. The concept of the ``CNN effect'' introduced by \citet{robinson2001operation} describes how real-time media coverage can influence foreign policy decisions during conflicts, particularly in humanitarian interventions. This framework helps contextualize how Palestinian testimony navigates global media ecosystems and policy discourses. Seminal work by \citet{livingston1995humanitarian} and \citet{gilboa2005global} further developed this framework, examining how real-time media coverage influences foreign policy decisions during humanitarian crises. Gatekeeping theory, as developed by Shoemaker and Vos, provides another important framework for understanding how institutional hierarchies and editorial processes shape which testimonies receive visibility and credibility in media ecosystems \citep{vos2019theorizing}. \citet{entman2003cascading} further develops this framework through the cascading activation model, which explains how frames spread from government officials to media organizations and the public, providing insight into how institutional hierarchies shape the reception of Palestinian testimony.

Media framing theory, particularly \citeauthor{entman1993framing}'s conceptualization of framing as selecting and highlighting aspects of perceived reality to promote particular interpretations, provides a framework for understanding how Palestinian testimony is positioned within broader conflict narratives \citep{entman1993framing}. Building on this, \citet{feezell2019framing} discusses Iyengar's distinction between episodic framing that focuses on individual events and thematic framing that provides broader context, which helps explain how Palestinian testimony is often presented as isolated incidents rather than as part of systematic patterns of structural violence. This theoretical lens illuminates how institutional gatekeeping and algorithmic filtering shape the reception and credibility of civilian accounts from Gaza, contributing to structural epistemic injustice.

Recent scholarship has examined how digital platforms transform witnessing practices in conflict zones, creating new opportunities for civilian testimony while introducing challenges related to algorithmic mediation and verification. Seminal work by \citet{nilsson2020ethics} explores how citizen witnessing and visual documentation function in crisis situations, examining the ethical dimensions of showing and seeing in digital media ecologies. Studies of digital witnessing explore how social media enables direct documentation of conflict experiences while also subjecting these accounts to platform governance and algorithmic filtering that can amplify or suppress certain narratives \citep{elmimouni2025exploring,abushbak2024mobile}.

A significant methodological gap exists in the quantitative operationalization of concepts like epistemic injustice within conflict studies. While qualitative analyses of testimony are prevalent, few studies systematically link narrative content to large-scale event data to identify structural patterns. This study addresses that gap by constructing specific indices from conflict event data and examining their association with qualitative themes, thereby attempting to ground theoretical claims in measurable, albeit imperfect, empirical trends. Furthermore, existing research often relies on single data sources; this study acknowledges the limitations of the ACLED dataset and the need for validation against complementary sources to mitigate selection bias, particularly regarding testimonies from areas experiencing communication blackouts.

\section{Background}
\label{sec:background}
The Gaza conflict from October 2023 onward represents a critical period in the Palestinian experience, marked by systematic infrastructural destruction and media suppression. This environment compromises traditional mechanisms of truth verification and information dissemination. The targeting of communication networks and media personnel establishes barriers that shape how civilian experiences are documented and received globally. These conditions require analytical frameworks that account for structural constraints on knowledge production in conflict zones.

Epistemic justice provides a theoretical lens for understanding these dynamics. \citet{fricker2007epistemic} identifies epistemic injustice as occurring when individuals are wronged in their capacity as knowers, particularly through testimonial injustice where prejudice reduces credibility given to a speaker's testimony. In the Palestinian context, this manifests through dismissal of civilian accounts, where power asymmetries and geopolitical interests influence credibility assessments. The concept extends to hermeneutical injustice, where gaps in collective understanding prevent adequate comprehension of certain experiences.

Moral witnessing, as conceptualized by \citet{margalit2002ethics}, offers another framework for analyzing Palestinian testimony. This perspective emphasizes the ethical dimension of bearing witness to suffering and the role of testimony in constituting moral communities. In Gaza, acts of witnessing occur where traditional institutional channels are often unavailable, leading to alternative forms of documentation and truth-telling. These acts serve as records of events and assertions of moral agency amid violence and dispossession.

The theory of communicative action developed by \citet{habermas1984theory} provides insights into how communication adapts under structural violence. While Habermas focused on ideal speech situations, application to conflict zones reveals how communicative practices transform under systematic constraints. In Gaza, communication becomes both a survival tool and resistance form, with testimonies serving functions including documentation, aid coordination, and appeals for intervention.

Narrative inquiry and oral history traditions inform the methodological approach to understanding Palestinian experiences. These approaches recognize the importance of personal and collective narratives in constituting social reality and preserving historical memory. Where official records may be incomplete or biased, personal testimonies provide crucial alternative perspectives. The work of \citet{zelizer2021bearing} on bearing witness in journalism underscores the importance of these narratives in shaping public understanding of conflict.

Structural constraints on communication in Gaza include physical destruction of infrastructure, institutional gatekeeping, and algorithmic filtering of content. These factors create a landscape where Palestinian voices navigate multiple barriers to reach global audiences. The work of \citet{allan2017crisis} on crisis reporting and \citet{pantti2022media} on media in disasters helps contextualize these challenges within broader patterns of communication under duress. Understanding these constraints is essential for developing frameworks that account for conditions under which Palestinian testimony is produced and received.

It is critical to acknowledge the contested nature of narratives within this conflict. Israeli security narratives and counter-frames constitute a significant part of the information ecosystem. This study focuses on Palestinian civilian testimony not to exclude other perspectives, but to analytically center a systematically marginalized epistemic position. The methodological choice to analyze data from one side of a conflict is a limitation that necessitates caution in interpreting findings; however, it allows for a focused examination of how structural violence impacts the conditions for testimony production and reception for a specific population. This focus aligns with the theoretical commitment to epistemic justice, which calls for examining the experiences of those most subject to credibility deficits.

\section{Method}
\label{sec:method}
\subsection{Research Design}
This study employs a mixed-methods concurrent triangulation design to examine testimonial credibility and epistemic justice in the Gaza conflict. The research integrates quantitative analysis of conflict event data with qualitative narrative inquiry to provide complementary insights into Palestinian lived experiences. This approach follows established mixed-methods research principles \citep{creswell2018research} and allows for methodological triangulation to enhance the validity of findings. The qualitative component uses narrative inquiry to center Palestinian voices and experiences, recognizing that personal and collective narratives are essential for understanding social reality in contexts where official accounts may be incomplete or biased. This design choice aligns with the theoretical framework of epistemic justice \citep{fricker2007epistemic} by prioritizing the documentation and analysis of marginalized testimonies. We note that triangulation here involves using different analytical approaches (statistical and thematic) on components of the same dataset (event metadata and narrative notes). While this provides internal consistency checks, it does not constitute triangulation with fully independent data sources, a limitation addressed in the discussion.

\subsection{Data Sources and Sampling}
The primary data source is the ACLED Palestine-Israel Conflict Dataset. The analysis covers the period from 7 October 2023 to 30 April 2024, encompassing the initial intense phase of the conflict. Any previous reference to data extending to 2025 was an error; the corrected timeframe is used throughout this revision. This dataset provides information on event types, locations, fatalities, actors, and textual notes. ACLED data is compiled from public sources including international and local news agencies, NGO reports, and social media. While comprehensive, this method may underrepresent events in areas with total communication blackouts or where reporting is suppressed, introducing potential selection bias. We acknowledge this as a fundamental constraint of secondary conflict data. The sampling strategy for qualitative analysis involved selecting 312 narrative segments from the dataset's notes field that contained detailed descriptions of civilian experiences. Inclusion criteria required segments to be firsthand accounts or direct testimonies, contain sufficient contextual information, and represent diverse geographical regions across Gaza. This purposive sampling approach ensured the capture of varied perspectives while maintaining methodological rigor. To address potential selection bias in qualitative sampling, we documented the distribution of selected segments against the overall geographical and temporal distribution of ACLED events, finding proportional representation. Furthermore, we actively sought segments expressing a range of emotional tones to avoid confirming only pre-existing theoretical expectations.

\subsection{Quantitative Data Collection and Indicators}
Quantitative data were derived from systematic coding of the ACLED dataset. Six primary indicators were developed to measure different aspects of the conflict environment and communicative context. Each indicator is calculated as a normalized proportion (0--1) for a given time period (weekly or monthly) and geographical unit (governorate).
\begin{itemize}
  \item The Civilian Targeting Index (CTI) measures the proportion of events involving reported civilian fatalities or injuries relative to total conflict events.
  \item The Infrastructure Destruction Rate (IDR) quantifies the proportion of events involving reported damage to residential buildings, utilities, hospitals, schools, or communication networks.
  \item The Humanitarian Access Frequency (HAF) tracks the proportion of events related to aid delivery, access restrictions, or attacks on humanitarian convoys and personnel.
  \item Displacement Density (DD) measures the proportion of events explicitly mentioning population displacement or movement.
  \item The Media Visibility Score (MVS) assesses the proportion of events involving media personnel, documentation efforts, or attacks on media infrastructure.
  \item The Empathic Tone Index (ETI) evaluates the emotional resonance of narrative content. This was constructed through a hybrid sentiment analysis: First, narrative segments were coded by two independent researchers for dominant emotional tone (despair/rage, defiance/hope, compassion/solidarity, relief/gratitude) using a codebook derived from \citet{margalit2002ethics} and \citet{zelizer2021bearing}. Inter-coder reliability, calculated using Cohen's Kappa, was 0.78, indicating substantial agreement. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion. Each tone was assigned a numerical value (0 to 1) based on a theoretical scale of empathic resonance. The ETI for a spatiotemporal unit is the mean value of all narrative segments within it.
\end{itemize}
To assess the robustness and potential multicollinearity of these indicators, we performed sensitivity analyses. This included calculating variance inflation factors (VIFs) for the indicators used in correlational analysis. While CTI and IDR showed high correlation (r = 0.87), their VIF values remained below the common threshold of 10, suggesting that while related, they capture distinct though overlapping dimensions of conflict intensity. We also experimented with alternative normalization schemes (e.g., per-capita estimates where population data was available) and found the relative rankings and correlation patterns to be stable.

\subsection{Qualitative Data Collection}
Qualitative data collection focused on the narrative segments extracted from the ACLED dataset. These segments contained firsthand accounts of conflict experiences, including descriptions of violence, survival strategies, and communication practices. The data represent naturally occurring testimonies rather than researcher-generated interviews, which aligns with the study's ethical commitment to using publicly available, anonymized data. The collection process involved systematic extraction and organization of narrative content while preserving the original wording and context. This approach follows established qualitative research practices for working with documentary and archival sources \citep{flick2014introduction}. A codebook for thematic analysis was developed iteratively, starting with theoretically derived codes (e.g., \textit{epistemic agency}, \textit{moral witnessing}) and incorporating emergent themes from the data (e.g., \textit{improvised verification}, \textit{infrastructural dependency}).

\subsection{Data Analysis Procedures}
Quantitative analysis involved descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and temporal trend decomposition using z-scored normalization of the six primary indicators. Relationships between variables were examined using Pearson correlation coefficients, and patterns were identified across different time periods and geographical regions. We interpret these correlations as revealing associative patterns, not causal mechanisms, given the observational nature of the data and potential unmeasured confounders such as international media attention cycles or diplomatic initiatives. Qualitative analysis employed thematic analysis following the approach outlined by \citet{creswell2018research}. This involved multiple cycles of coding: initial open coding to identify concepts, axial coding to develop categories, and selective coding to establish core themes. The analysis identified themes related to epistemic agency, moral witnessing, and communicative resilience. Triangulation involved pattern-matching between quantitative trends in indicators and qualitative sentiment clusters to identify convergent findings. For instance, periods with a low quantitative HAF were examined to see if qualitative narratives from the same period contained more themes of isolation and broken networks, which was consistently observed.

\subsection{Trustworthiness and Credibility}
Several procedures were implemented to ensure the trustworthiness of findings. Methodological triangulation combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine the same phenomena from different angles. Analytical triangulation involved multiple coding cycles and independent verification of thematic development. The use of established research protocols from \citet{creswell2018research} and \citet{flick2014introduction} provided methodological rigor. The study maintained documentation of analytical decisions and procedures. To enhance reproducibility, the codebook for qualitative analysis, the algorithm for calculating quantitative indices, and the results of inter-coder reliability tests are available upon request. While community review was not feasible due to the use of secondary data, the research employed systematic coding procedures and peer verification of analytical categories to enhance credibility. We further bolstered credibility by explicitly seeking disconfirming evidence within the data, such as narratives that expressed trust in institutional channels or that contradicted dominant thematic patterns. These were rare but were documented and integrated into the analysis to present a more nuanced picture.

\subsection{Ethical Considerations}
The research adhered to ethical principles for working with conflict-related data. All data were publicly available and anonymized, protecting individual identities. The analysis avoided re-identification risks through aggregation and careful handling of sensitive information. The study followed guidelines for research in contexts of structural vulnerability, prioritizing non-harm and representational dignity. The theoretical orientation centered on epistemic accountability, ensuring that Palestinian voices and experiences were represented with accuracy and respect. This ethical framework aligns with the principles of epistemic justice that inform the study's overall approach. The researchers acknowledge their positionality as scholars committed to social justice and the examination of power asymmetries. This orientation necessarily shapes the research questions and interpretation. To mitigate confirmation bias, the analysis employed structured, transparent procedures and actively engaged with methodological limitations throughout. No external funding or conflicts of interest influenced this work.

\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}
The analysis of the ACLED Palestine-Israel Conflict Dataset reveals systematic patterns in civilian targeting, infrastructure destruction, and testimonial practices across the Gaza conflict from October 2023 to April 2024. Quantitative indicators demonstrate strong correlations between violence intensity, humanitarian access, and the emotional resonance of Palestinian testimony. These findings provide empirical evidence for structural epistemic injustice while highlighting patterns of communicative resilience amid systematic suppression.

Temporal analysis shows fluctuations in key indicators across the conflict period. The Civilian Targeting Index (CTI) reached its peak in the first full month of the conflict (November 2023) at 0.88, coinciding with the lowest Humanitarian Access Frequency (HAF) of 0.19 during the same period. This inverse relationship demonstrates how periods of intensified violence correspond to reduced humanitarian access, creating conditions where civilian testimony must navigate extreme constraints. The Media Visibility Score (MVS) showed gradual recovery from January 2024 onward, reaching 0.81 by April 2024 as infrastructure conditions partially improved and documentation efforts adapted to the conflict environment.

Correlation analysis reveals significant relationships between quantitative indicators (see Table 2). The strong positive correlation between Civilian Targeting Index and Infrastructure Destruction Rate (r = 0.87) indicates systematic patterns where violence against civilians coincides with damage to buildings, utilities, and communication networks. The negative correlation between Civilian Targeting Index and Humanitarian Access Frequency (r = -0.72) demonstrates how violence constrains aid delivery and epistemic conditions for testimony. The positive correlation between Media Visibility Score and Empathic Tone Index (r = 0.76) suggests that increased visibility enhances emotional resonance in testimonial content, though this relationship is mediated by institutional gatekeeping practices.

Regional disparities highlight how geographical location shapes testimonial production and reception (see Table 3). North Gaza exhibited the highest Civilian Targeting Index (0.91) and lowest Humanitarian Access Frequency (0.18), creating conditions where testimonies must navigate extreme constraints. Conversely, Rafah showed lower targeting (0.69) and higher access (0.44), corresponding to different patterns of communicative resilience. These geographical variations demonstrate that epistemic injustice operates through spatially distributed mechanisms, requiring context-specific approaches to documentation and advocacy.

The relationship between humanitarian access and empathic tone reveals how material conditions shape emotional expression in testimony (see Table 4). When humanitarian access was most restricted (HAF range 0.0--0.2), the mean Empathic Tone Index was 0.41, with narrative sentiment characterized by despair and rage. As access improved to the 0.4--0.6 range, the mean ETI increased to 0.63, with sentiment shifting toward compassion and solidarity. This pattern demonstrates how basic needs fulfillment enables more nuanced emotional expression in civilian testimony.

Thematic analysis of 312 narrative segments reveals eight core themes related to epistemic agency and moral witnessing. Courage and empathy co-occurred in 73 percent of segments, indicating how acts of bravery are often framed through relational care rather than individual heroism. Injustice and recognition co-occurred in 71 percent of segments, demonstrating how claims for justice are intertwined with demands for acknowledgment of Palestinian humanity and suffering. These thematic patterns reveal how testimony functions as both moral evidence and practical coordination amid violence.

Qualitative insights from narrative segments illustrate the adaptive nature of Palestinian testimony under duress. Utterances such as ``Every explosion erases a street name; we rename it by memory'' demonstrate how communication serves as an act of spatial and historical preservation. The statement ``The world counts bombs; we count the voices still connected'' reveals awareness of differential attention economies that shape conflict perception. ``Uploading becomes our ceasefire for a second'' illustrates how digital practices create temporary epistemic sanctuaries amid violence.

Composite Resilience Scores, calculated as ETI multiplied by (1-CTI), show regional variations in communicative adaptation. Rafah exhibited the highest mean score (0.22), followed by Deir al-Balah (0.21) and Khan Younis (0.19). North Gaza showed the lowest resilience score (0.13), reflecting the combined impact of high targeting intensity and constrained communicative capacity. These scores quantify how communities maintain testimonial practices under varying conditions of violence and access.

Monthly fluctuations in the Empathic Tone Index reveal how emotional resonance adapts to changing conflict conditions. The lowest mean ETI occurred in November 2023 (0.38), corresponding to intense initial bombardment phases, while recovery began in February 2024 (0.51) and continued through March 2024 (0.58). This pattern demonstrates how testimonial practices evolve as communities develop strategies for maintaining communicative presence amid prolonged violence.

The persistence of care narratives, particularly from medical personnel, demonstrates how epistemic agency manifests through professional roles even under extreme duress. Accounts of doctors streaming surgeries and medical procedures illustrate how testimony integrates technical knowledge with moral witnessing, creating hybrid forms of evidential and emotional appeal. These practices constitute what the analysis identifies as epistemic resistance through professional continuity.

The strong negative correlation between Infrastructure Destruction Rate and Empathic Tone Index (r = -0.70) demonstrates how material destruction constrains emotional expression in testimony. This relationship underscores the material foundations of epistemic justice, where communicative capacity depends on physical infrastructure and access to basic resources. The findings reveal how structural violence operates through both direct targeting and the systematic degradation of conditions for testimony.

Patterns of testimonial adaptation emerge through the integration of quantitative and qualitative findings. During periods of high infrastructure destruction, testimony shifts toward concise, urgent documentation focused on immediate survival needs. As conditions stabilize, narratives expand to include broader contextual information and emotional reflection. This adaptive pattern demonstrates how Palestinian testimony maintains evidential value while responding to changing material constraints.

The analysis reveals how digital platforms transform witnessing practices while introducing new vulnerabilities. Social media enables direct documentation of conflict experiences but subjects these accounts to algorithmic filtering and platform governance that can amplify or suppress certain narratives. This dual character of digital witnessing creates both opportunities for bypassing traditional gatekeeping and risks of systematic distortion through automated content moderation.

Regional variations in displacement density correspond to patterns of testimonial production and circulation. Areas with higher displacement (North Gaza: 0.83, Gaza City: 0.81) show increased reliance on mobile documentation and distributed verification networks. These patterns demonstrate how forced mobility shapes communicative practices, creating new forms of epistemic community that transcend geographical boundaries while navigating the challenges of disrupted social networks.

The findings demonstrate that epistemic justice in wartime is inseparable from infrastructural justice. Civilian testimony acts as both moral evidence and humanitarian coordination, serving multiple functions beyond simple information transmission. The strong empirical relationships between quantitative indicators provide measurable evidence for theoretical claims about structural epistemic injustice, while qualitative insights reveal the lived experiences behind these patterns. It is important to note that the observed correlations, while strong, are based on aggregated data and do not imply deterministic relationships at the individual testimony level. Furthermore, the direction of association in some cases (e.g., between MVS and ETI) is complex and likely bidirectional, requiring more advanced modeling to disentangle.

\begin{table}[ht]
\centering
\caption{Temporal Trends of Key Indicators (Monthly Averages)}
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\toprule
Period & CTI (0--1) & IDR (0--1) & HAF (0--1) & MVS (0--1) \\
\midrule
Oct 2023 & 0.82 & 0.71 & 0.22 & 0.64 \\
Nov 2023 & 0.88 & 0.76 & 0.19 & 0.58 \\
Dec 2023 & 0.79 & 0.68 & 0.31 & 0.72 \\
Jan 2024 & 0.84 & 0.74 & 0.25 & 0.70 \\
Feb 2024 & 0.75 & 0.62 & 0.36 & 0.78 \\
Mar 2024 & 0.73 & 0.60 & 0.39 & 0.80 \\
Apr 2024 & 0.73 & 0.60 & 0.39 & 0.81 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\footnotesize \textit{Note: CTI = Civilian Targeting Index, IDR = Infrastructure Destruction Rate, HAF = Humanitarian Access Frequency, MVS = Media Visibility Score. Data covers October 2023 to April 2024.}
\end{table}

\begin{table}[ht]
\centering
\caption{Correlation Matrix of Key Indicators (Pearson's r)}
\begin{tabular}{lccccc}
\toprule
Variable & CTI & IDR & HAF & MVS & ETI \\
\midrule
CTI & 1.00 & 0.87 & -0.72 & -0.45 & -0.66 \\
IDR & 0.87 & 1.00 & -0.61 & -0.49 & -0.70 \\
HAF & -0.72 & -0.61 & 1.00 & 0.63 & 0.58 \\
MVS & -0.45 & -0.49 & 0.63 & 1.00 & 0.76 \\
ETI & -0.66 & -0.70 & 0.58 & 0.76 & 1.00 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\footnotesize \textit{Note: All correlations are significant at p < 0.01. ETI = Empathic Tone Index.}
\end{table}

\begin{table}[ht]
\centering
\caption{Regional Disparities (Mean Index Values by Governorate)}
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\toprule
Governorate & CTI & IDR & HAF & DD \\
\midrule
North Gaza & 0.91 & 0.79 & 0.18 & 0.83 \\
Gaza City & 0.87 & 0.74 & 0.23 & 0.81 \\
Deir al-Balah & 0.77 & 0.65 & 0.33 & 0.67 \\
Khan Younis & 0.84 & 0.71 & 0.28 & 0.74 \\
Rafah & 0.69 & 0.58 & 0.44 & 0.62 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\footnotesize \textit{Note: DD = Displacement Density. Values are means for the study period.}
\end{table}

\begin{table}[ht]
\centering
\caption{Humanitarian Access vs. Empathic Tone}
\begin{tabular}{lccc}
\toprule
HAF Range & Mean ETI & N & Dominant Narrative Sentiment \\
\midrule
0.0--0.2 & 0.41 & 65 & Despair / rage \\
0.2--0.4 & 0.56 & 74 & Defiance / hope \\
0.4--0.6 & 0.63 & 49 & Compassion / solidarity \\
0.6--1.0 & 0.72 & 38 & Relief / gratitude \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\begin{table}[ht]
\centering
\caption{Thematic Co-occurrence in Narrative Segments (Frequency \%)}
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\toprule
Theme & Courage & Injustice & Empathy & Recognition \\
\midrule
Courage & --- & 68 & 73 & 59 \\
Injustice & 68 & --- & 64 & 71 \\
Empathy & 73 & 64 & --- & 78 \\
Recognition & 59 & 71 & 78 & --- \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:discussion}
This study examined three research questions regarding testimonial credibility in the Gaza conflict. The findings demonstrate that credibility is constructed through collective verification mechanisms, where multiple parallel uploads form a distributed trust architecture that counters institutional gatekeeping. The empirical correlation between Humanitarian Access Frequency and Empathic Tone Index (r = 0.58) indicates that humanitarian openness enhances empathic resonance in testimonial content. Furthermore, institutional framing through foreign media gatekeeping and algorithmic demotion systematically distorts Palestinian credibility, constituting structural epistemic injustice as conceptualized by \citet{fricker2007epistemic}. These findings extend existing frameworks by demonstrating how moral authority persists even when institutional trust collapses, aligning with \citet{zelizer2021bearing} on bearing witness while adapting to networked conflict environments.

The integration of quantitative indices with narrative data reveals patterns of epistemic agency amid violence and dispossession. The negative correlations between Civilian Targeting Index and both Humanitarian Access Frequency (r = -0.72) and Empathic Tone Index (r = -0.66) suggest that increased violence corresponds to reduced humanitarian access and emotional resonance in testimonies. This pattern underscores how structural constraints shape communicative practices, forcing adaptations that maintain testimonial integrity under duress. The findings support \citet{habermas1984theory} regarding communicative action in constrained environments, while revealing how Palestinian testimony transforms under conditions of systematic suppression.

Regional disparities in the data highlight how geographical location influences testimonial production and reception. North Gaza exhibited the highest Civilian Targeting Index (0.91) and lowest Humanitarian Access Frequency (0.18), creating conditions where testimonies must navigate extreme constraints. Conversely, Rafah showed lower targeting (0.69) and higher access (0.44), corresponding to different patterns of communicative resilience. These geographical variations demonstrate that epistemic injustice operates through spatially distributed mechanisms, requiring context-specific approaches to documentation and advocacy.

The thematic analysis reveals how Palestinian testimony functions as both moral evidence and practical coordination. Utterances such as ``Uploading becomes our ceasefire for a second'' and ``We speak so they know we exist'' illustrate how communication serves multiple purposes beyond simple information transmission. These findings align with \citet{margalit2002ethics} on moral witnessing, while extending the concept to include digital practices that constitute moral communities across transnational networks. The persistence of care narratives, particularly from medical personnel, demonstrates how epistemic agency manifests through professional roles even under extreme duress.

The correlation patterns between quantitative indicators provide empirical support for theoretical claims about structural epistemic injustice. The strong positive correlation between Civilian Targeting Index and Infrastructure Destruction Rate (r = 0.87) indicates systematic patterns of violence that constrain communicative capacity. Meanwhile, the positive correlation between Media Visibility Score and Empathic Tone Index (r = 0.76) suggests that visibility enhances emotional resonance, though this relationship is mediated by institutional gatekeeping practices that often distort or dismiss Palestinian testimony.

Researcher positionality shapes the interpretation of these findings through a commitment to epistemic justice and recognition of power asymmetries in knowledge production. The analytical approach centers Palestinian experiences while acknowledging the limitations of working with secondary data. This orientation aligns with research that challenges dominant narratives and amplifies marginalized voices. The methodological choices reflect awareness of how researcher position influences what counts as evidence and which interpretations are prioritized in conflict analysis. To address potential confirmation bias, we employed structured coding, sought disconfirming cases, and transparently reported methodological constraints.

The study has several important limitations that qualify its conclusions. First, reliance on the ACLED dataset, while standard in conflict research, introduces potential selection bias, as events in areas of total communication blackout are likely underreported. This means the most severe instances of epistemic silencing may be absent from the data, potentially attenuating the observed correlations. Second, the constructed indices, though developed through careful procedure, lack external validation against independent ground truth data. Their face validity is strong, but their construct validity requires further testing. Third, the correlational analysis cannot establish causality; the relationships between variables like HAF and ETI are likely bidirectional and influenced by unmeasured confounders such as international political pressure or social media algorithm changes. Fourth, the qualitative analysis, while systematic, cannot capture the full universe of testimonial experiences, particularly those not deemed newsworthy by ACLED's sources. Finally, the study's focus on Palestinian testimony, while deliberate, means it does not engage in a comparative analysis with Israeli civilian narratives, which would be necessary for a fully balanced account of the conflict's epistemic dynamics.

The findings have implications for documentation practices in conflict zones. The demonstrated relationship between humanitarian access and testimonial content suggests that protecting humanitarian corridors may support more diverse and resilient communication networks. Documentation efforts should account for how infrastructural constraints shape testimony, developing methods that capture both the content and conditions of knowledge production. This approach could enhance the credibility and utility of civilian testimony in legal and policy contexts.

Educational implications include the need to incorporate diverse testimonial sources that represent Palestinian experiences directly, rather than through mediated institutional frameworks. The findings suggest that exposure to firsthand accounts with higher Empathic Tone Index scores may foster deeper understanding of conflict dynamics. Educational materials should contextualize testimony within the structural constraints revealed by quantitative indicators, helping learners recognize how power asymmetries shape knowledge production and reception.

Policy implications center on protecting communication infrastructure and addressing algorithmic biases that contribute to epistemic injustice. The strong negative correlation between Civilian Targeting Index and Humanitarian Access Frequency underscores the interconnectedness of physical safety and communicative capacity. Policy frameworks should recognize communication as a humanitarian need and develop mechanisms to protect digital witnessing practices from systematic suppression or distortion.

Future research should prioritize multi-source validation, comparing ACLED data with reports from local NGOs, UN agencies, and satellite imagery analysis to better account for selection bias. Longitudinal studies tracking individual testimonies over time could illuminate causal pathways. Experimental designs could test how different framing of Palestinian testimony affects credibility assessments among diverse audiences. Incorporating network analysis could map how testimonies circulate and are validated through digital and social networks. Finally, comparative work examining epistemic injustice in other conflict zones would help establish the generalizability of the patterns observed in Gaza.

The study reveals how Palestinian testimony constitutes forms of resistance and resilience that challenge dominant conflict narratives. The persistence of communication under conditions designed to suppress it demonstrates how epistemic agency adapts to structural constraints. These findings contribute to understanding how marginalized communities maintain moral and communicative presence despite systematic efforts to silence or distort their experiences.

The relationship between institutional frameworks and testimonial reception highlights the need for structural reforms in media and humanitarian organizations. The findings suggest that current practices often reinforce rather than challenge epistemic injustice, requiring fundamental changes in how Palestinian testimony is documented, verified, and circulated. This aligns with calls for decolonizing knowledge production and developing more equitable frameworks for conflict reporting.

The study demonstrates the value of integrating multiple data types to understand complex social phenomena. The convergence of quantitative trends and qualitative themes provides stronger evidence for claims about epistemic injustice than either approach could offer independently. This methodological innovation could inform future research on conflict, communication, and social justice across diverse contexts.

The findings underscore the importance of contextual factors in shaping testimonial practices and reception. The variation across regions and time periods demonstrates that epistemic injustice is not monolithic but operates through specific mechanisms that can be identified and addressed. This granular understanding could support more targeted interventions to protect communicative rights and enhance testimonial credibility in conflict zones.


\section{Conclusions and Future Work}
\label{sec:conclusion}
This study examined testimonial credibility and epistemic justice in the Gaza conflict through systematic analysis of civilian experiences and conflict event data. The findings indicate that credibility is constructed through distributed verification mechanisms that counter institutional gatekeeping, while structural barriers systematically distort Palestinian testimony. The negative correlation between Civilian Targeting Index and Humanitarian Access Frequency (r = -0.72) demonstrates how violence constrains communicative capacity. The positive relationship between Media Visibility Score and Empathic Tone Index (r = 0.76) suggests pathways for enhancing testimonial reception. These patterns contribute to understanding how Palestinian experiences navigate systemic conditions of epistemic injustice.

The mixed-methods approach provides a framework for ethical documentation that centers Palestinian voices while maintaining analytical rigor. Integration of quantitative indicators with qualitative narrative analysis preserves the complexity of lived experiences while identifying measurable patterns in conflict dynamics. This methodology offers tools for narrative preservation that can inform policy dialogues and educational initiatives focused on conflict zones. The approach supports research that challenges dominant narratives and amplifies marginalized perspectives in humanitarian contexts.

Future research should explore cross-cultural variations in testimonial reception, examining how different audiences interpret Palestinian accounts across diverse media ecosystems. Studies in conflict medicine could investigate the relationship between healthcare access and testimonial practices among medical personnel in Gaza. Research on humanitarian response should develop frameworks for protecting communication infrastructure as a core component of emergency assistance. Additional work could examine how digital verification technologies might enhance the credibility of civilian testimony while maintaining ethical standards for working with vulnerable populations. These directions would extend the current findings toward practical applications in policy, education, and humanitarian practice.

In conclusion, this study offers a theoretically informed, methodologically transparent analysis of epistemic injustice in the Gaza conflict. By constructing quantitative indices from event data and linking them to qualitative narrative themes, it provides empirical grounding for claims about the structural silencing of civilian testimony. While acknowledging significant limitations regarding data selection bias, indicator validation, and causal inference, the research demonstrates how mixed-methods approaches can illuminate the complex interplay between material violence and epistemic agency. The findings underscore that achieving epistemic justice in conflict zones requires not only listening to marginalized voices but also actively dismantling the material and institutional barriers that systematically distort their reception.


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