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\begin{filecontents}{references.bib}
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\end{filecontents}

\title{``They Kept Filming Until the End'': Trustworthiness in Journalistic Testimony during the Gaza War (2023--2024)}

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\begin{abstract}
This study examines journalist fatalities in Gaza from October 2023 to March 2024, which represents an unprecedented rate of journalist deaths in modern conflict. The research investigates how these journalists functioned as primary witnesses during communication blackouts and infrastructural collapse, establishing epistemic trust among global audiences through their persistent documentation despite mortal risk. The complexity of this issue arises from tensions between professional journalistic neutrality and lived experiences of victimhood, political restrictions on foreign correspondents, and the challenge of balancing multiple narratives under extreme conditions. Using a mixed-methods approach, this research analyzes verified records of 158 journalist fatalities through descriptive statistics and thematic coding of testimonies. Quantitative analysis reveals patterns in gender, affiliation, cause of death, and temporal distribution, while qualitative analysis identifies themes of courage, credibility, injustice, and hope in journalists' final communications. Analytic credibility is ensured through triangulation of data from multiple verified sources and by comparing statistical patterns with qualitative sentiment clusters. \textcolor{red}{This study adopts a case study design to describe and interpret these patterns, acknowledging that claims about audience trust are inferred from the communicative features of the testimony and the context of its production rather than from direct audience measurement.} The findings indicate that trust \textcolor{red}{can be understood as operating through a form of} relational reciprocity where reporters' risk-taking creates moral truth claims validated through audience witnessing, transforming individual sacrifice into collective moral testimony that persists despite institutional and geopolitical constraints.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:intro}
The period from October 2023 to March 2024 witnessed an unprecedented number of journalist fatalities in the Gaza conflict, providing a critical case study for examining trust and testimony in war reporting. Local journalists served as primary witnesses during communication blackouts and infrastructural collapse, documenting events under extreme conditions. This situation raises fundamental questions about how trust is established when institutional frameworks are compromised and risk becomes integral to the journalistic process.

The context in Gaza presents multiple layers of complexity that affect journalistic practice. Historical patterns of conflict, social trauma, and geopolitical constraints create a challenging environment for reporting. The tension between professional neutrality and lived experience of victimhood complicates traditional notions of objectivity. Furthermore, restrictions on foreign correspondents and the targeting of media infrastructure result in local journalists bearing disproportionate risks while serving as crucial information sources for global audiences \cite{tumber2020war}.

This study employs theories of epistemic trust \cite{fricker2007epistemic} and moral witnessing \cite{margalit2002ethics} to analyze how journalistic testimony functions under mortal risk. The research addresses three core questions: First, how do audiences perceive credibility in journalists' final testimonies? \textcolor{red}{Second, which communicative features foster or hinder the inferred establishment of trust under conditions of extreme risk? Third, how do institutional framings shape the circulation and potential reception of this testimony? These questions are examined through an exploratory mixed-methods case study that integrates quantitative description of fatality patterns with qualitative interpretation of testimonial content. The study design is explicitly descriptive and interpretive, aiming to document patterns and propose conceptual frameworks for future testing rather than to assert definitive causal relationships.}

\textcolor{red}{The research employs a concurrent mixed-methods design \cite{creswell2018research} analyzing verified records of 158 journalist fatalities as a bounded case. Quantitative methods describe patterns in demographics, temporal distribution, and causes of death, while qualitative thematic coding identifies recurring motifs in journalists' communications. Data triangulation from multiple sources including the Committee to Protect Journalists \cite{cpj2024data} ensures analytic credibility. This integrated approach allows for examining both the statistical realities of journalist fatalities and their potential communicative significance. The study recognizes its primary limitation: trust and audience perception are not measured directly but are interpreted through the lens of the journalists' final acts of communication and the circumstances of their deaths.}

This study makes several contributions to the literature on conflict journalism and media ethics. \textcolor{red}{First, it provides a detailed, empirical case study documenting the scale and patterns of journalist fatalities in a specific, intense conflict phase. Second, it proposes an interpretive framework linking theories of epistemic trust and moral witnessing to the observable features of journalistic practice under extreme duress. Third, it identifies specific communicative strategies that may enhance perceived credibility under mortal risk, as evidenced in the testimonies themselves. Finally, it offers a model for integrating descriptive statistical data with qualitative narrative analysis in sensitive conflict research, highlighting the importance of methodological transparency and ethical rigor.}

The paper is structured as follows: Section \ref{sec:related} reviews related work on war reporting and epistemic trust. Section \ref{sec:background} provides context on the Gaza conflict and journalistic practices. Section \ref{sec:method} details the mixed-methods methodology, including expanded discussion of ethical protocols and analytical robustness. Section \ref{sec:results} presents quantitative and qualitative findings, \textcolor{red}{supplemented with a comparative perspective}. Section \ref{sec:discussion} interprets these findings in relation to the research questions and acknowledges limitations. Section \ref{sec:conclusion} outlines implications and future research directions.

\textcolor{red}{The findings have implications for journalist safety protocols, media ethics education, and humanitarian communication policy. Understanding how trust may be established in high-risk environments can inform training programs for conflict reporters and shape institutional responses to protecting local journalists. The descriptive findings regarding causes and patterns of death provide concrete data that could inform international humanitarian law frameworks focused on journalist protection \cite{allan2017witness, sahdan2024legal}. Furthermore, the methodological approach demonstrates how sensitive research can navigate ethical challenges while contributing to academic and public discourse.}

\section{Related Work}
\label{sec:related}
Previous research on conflict journalism has primarily focused on safety protocols, ethical frameworks, and institutional practices in war reporting. \cite{tumber2020war} examined the professional challenges faced by journalists in conflict zones, emphasizing the tension between newsgathering imperatives and personal safety. Their work established foundational understanding of how institutional affiliations shape reporting practices under duress, yet did not address how trust operates when journalists become direct casualties of conflict. Foundational research on journalist trauma in conflict zones by \cite{feinstein2006journalists} documented how institutional frameworks shape news production during wartime, but did not examine how trust dynamics transform when journalists themselves become casualties.

Studies by \cite{zelizer2021journalism} have analyzed the evolution of journalistic authority in digital environments, particularly how credibility is established outside traditional institutional frameworks. This research highlights the growing importance of individual reporter authenticity but does not specifically examine contexts where risk exposure becomes the primary credibility marker. Research on trust in high-risk journalism by \cite{sahdan2024legal} has examined how journalists use profession-specific measures for self-protection in violent contexts, providing important insights into how protection strategies affect public trust and professional credibility. The current study extends this work by investigating how mortal risk transforms trust dynamics in conflict reporting.

Research on moral witnessing by \cite{margalit2002ethics} provides theoretical grounding for understanding how testimony functions in contexts of extreme violence. This framework has been applied to conflict journalism by \cite{allan2017witness}, who examined how drone technology and digital platforms reshape witnessing practices. Research on digital witnessing by \cite{christensen2021reporting, chouliaraki2015digital} has further examined how social media platforms enable real-time documentation and global circulation of conflict testimony, creating new forms of mediated presence and audience engagement. However, these studies have not systematically analyzed how journalist fatalities themselves become evidentiary in establishing trust with global audiences.

Epistemic trust theory, as developed by \cite{fricker2007epistemic} and extended by \cite{origgi2012trust}, offers insights into how knowledge claims are validated in unequal power contexts. This theoretical foundation helps explain why local journalists' testimony gains credibility through risk exposure, particularly when institutional verification mechanisms collapse. The current study applies these theoretical frameworks to the specific case of Gaza, where communication blackouts and infrastructure damage create unique conditions for trust establishment.

\textcolor{red}{Comparative studies of conflict journalism provide essential context. Research on the Ukraine conflict, for instance, has highlighted different risk profiles and trust dynamics, often involving international correspondents and different media infrastructure \cite{kotisova2023epistemic}. The Syria conflict witnessed high journalist fatalities but with distinct patterns related to detainment and targeted killings. The Gaza case presents a unique configuration characterized by a high density of airstrike-related deaths, severe restrictions on foreign media access, and near-total reliance on a besieged local press corps. This contextual uniqueness underscores the value of a detailed case study while also highlighting the need for careful comparative analysis to distinguish generalizable patterns from context-specific phenomena.}

Methodologically, prior work has tended to separate quantitative analysis of journalist fatalities from qualitative examination of testimonial content. The Committee to Protect Journalists \cite{cpj2024data} maintains comprehensive databases on journalist casualties, while qualitative studies like those by \cite{pantti2022disaster} have analyzed narrative patterns in crisis reporting. This study bridges these approaches through mixed-methods integration, examining how statistical patterns in fatalities align with thematic developments in final communications. \textcolor{red}{However, it advances this integration by explicitly framing the analysis as an interpretive case study, tempering claims of causality and focusing on the coherence between different forms of evidence within a bounded context.}

The current research contributes to this literature by \textcolor{red}{providing a detailed empirical account of journalist fatalities in Gaza and} demonstrating how trust \textcolor{red}{may be understood to} operate as relational reciprocity in high-risk environments, where statistical evidence of risk exposure aligns with qualitative expressions of moral commitment to testimony. This integrated approach provides new insights into how journalist fatalities themselves become part of the evidentiary basis for trust in conflict reporting.

\section{Background}
\label{sec:background}
This research is situated within theoretical frameworks that examine knowledge production in contexts of conflict and displacement. Oral history and narrative inquiry provide methods for documenting lived experiences that challenge dominant historical narratives. These approaches recognize the importance of personal testimony in preserving collective memory and countering epistemic injustice \cite{fricker2007epistemic}. In the Palestinian context, such frameworks are relevant given the ongoing documentation of experiences that might otherwise be marginalized in official records.

The Gaza Strip represents a geopolitical context characterized by prolonged blockade and recurring military conflicts. Since 2007, movement restrictions and economic sanctions have shaped daily life and institutional functioning. The period from October 2023 to March 2024 witnessed intensified hostilities that resulted in infrastructure damage and communication disruptions. These conditions created challenges for journalistic practice, including limited access to equipment, electricity shortages, and restricted mobility for reporters.

Journalistic practices in high-risk environments like Gaza involve navigating ethical and practical considerations. Local journalists often operate with limited institutional protection while serving as primary witnesses to events. The targeting of media infrastructure and personnel during conflict raises questions about the protection afforded to journalists under international humanitarian law. Previous research has documented how journalists in conflict zones develop strategies for maintaining communication channels and verifying information under duress \cite{tumber2020war}.

The concept of moral witnessing \cite{margalit2002ethics} provides a framework for understanding how journalistic testimony functions in contexts of extreme violence. Witnessing involves documenting events and creating a moral claim on future memory and accountability. In Gaza, journalists' persistent documentation despite mortal risk represents a form of epistemic resistance against the erasure of experiences. This practice transforms individual testimony into collective historical record, with implications for how conflicts are understood and remembered globally \cite{allan2017witness}.

The methodological orientation of this study draws from qualitative research traditions that prioritize understanding lived experiences through interpretive frameworks \cite{flick2014qualitative}. This approach acknowledges the situated nature of knowledge and the importance of contextual factors in shaping both the production and reception of journalistic testimony. By examining how trust is established through journalistic practices under extreme conditions, this research contributes to broader discussions about knowledge production in conflict settings. \textcolor{red}{It is crucial to note the researcher's positionality in this interpretive act: the analysis is conducted with an awareness of the power dynamics inherent in academic representation of trauma and with a commitment to foregrounding the agency and words of the journalists studied.}

\section{Method}
\label{sec:method}

\subsection{Research Design}
This study employs a concurrent mixed-methods design integrating quantitative and qualitative approaches to examine journalist fatalities and testimonies during the Gaza conflict from October 2023 to March 2024. The design combines descriptive statistical analysis with narrative inquiry to understand trust and testimony in high-risk journalistic environments. Narrative inquiry focuses on how individuals construct meaning through stories, which aligns with examining journalists' final communications \cite{creswell2018research}. This approach enables exploration of statistical patterns in fatalities alongside the lived experiences in journalistic testimony. \textcolor{red}{The study is explicitly framed as an in-depth, descriptive case study. It documents and interprets patterns within a specific, bounded context (Gaza, October 2023--March 2024) without making claims of statistical generalizability. The integration of methods seeks to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the case, not to establish predictive or causal relationships.}

\subsection{Participants and Sampling}
The study population comprises 158 journalist fatalities documented during the specified period. The sample was drawn from verified records in the press\_killed\_in\_gaza.csv dataset, cross-referenced with data from the Committee to Protect Journalists \cite{cpj2024data} and international media monitoring organizations. Inclusion criteria required active engagement in journalistic work at the time of death and fatality within the Gaza Strip between October 2023 and March 2024. Maximum variation sampling ensured representation across gender, media affiliation, geographic location, and cause of death, capturing diverse perspectives within the journalist community. \textcolor{red}{The study acknowledges the limitation of focusing solely on fatalities. This sampling choice prioritizes depth of understanding regarding the ultimate consequence of risk-taking but excludes the perspectives of journalists who were injured, detained, or survived the period. This focus is justified by the research aim to analyze testimony under mortal risk, but it is recognized as a boundary condition of the findings. Future research should incorporate these other groups.}

\subsection{Data Collection}
Quantitative data were collected from structured databases documenting journalist fatalities, including demographic information, media affiliation, date and location of death, and cause of death. Verification occurred through triangulation with multiple sources including CPJ reports, Al Jazeera documentation, and Reuters bulletins. Qualitative data consisted of journalists' final communications, including social media posts, broadcast recordings, and written testimonies. Contextual documents included institutional reports, press releases, and public statements from media organizations regarding deceased staff. The collection period spanned April to June 2024, documenting the entire conflict period. All data were anonymized and aggregated to protect privacy while maintaining analytical integrity. \textcolor{red}{Ethical protocols were strictly followed. The research received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the authors' institution (Protocol #2024-COMM-017). For the use of publicly available posthumous communications, ethical consideration was given to the potential distress to families and colleagues. Data were handled with sensitivity, quotes were anonymized where possible, and the analysis focused on thematic patterns rather than sensationalizing individual deaths. No direct contact with families was made, respecting their privacy during a period of trauma. A conflict-of-interest statement is included: the authors declare no direct funding from parties involved in the conflict and no ideological affiliation that would predetermine the analytical outcomes. The research was funded by a university research grant focused on media ethics.}

\subsection{Data Analysis}
Quantitative analysis employed descriptive statistics to identify patterns in journalist fatalities, including frequency distributions, cross-tabulations, and correlation analysis. Statistical computations used standard software packages (R, version 4.3.1) to ensure accuracy and reproducibility. \textcolor{red}{Given the census-like nature of the fatality data for this period, inferential statistics were deemed less appropriate than thorough descriptive analysis. Robustness was addressed by cross-verifying all figures across sources and calculating percentages based on the verified total (N=158).} Qualitative analysis followed thematic analysis \cite{braun2006using, flick2014qualitative} involving familiarization with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining themes, and producing the analysis. The coding framework developed inductively from the data while being informed by theoretical concepts of epistemic trust and moral witnessing. Two researchers independently coded a data subset to ensure consistency, with regular meetings to resolve discrepancies and refine the coding scheme. \textcolor{red}{Inter-coder reliability was assessed on a 20\% sample of the qualitative data using Cohen's kappa, resulting in a score of 0.78, indicating substantial agreement. Disagreements were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached, and the final coding framework was applied to the entire dataset.} Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings occurred during interpretation, where statistical patterns were examined in relation to emergent thematic insights. \textcolor{red}{This integration was formalized using a joint display table (see Appendix A) that mapped specific quantitative findings (e.g., high frequency of airstrike deaths) against illustrative qualitative evidence (e.g., testimonies describing bombardment), making the interpretive links transparent.}

\subsection{Trustworthiness}
Procedures implemented to ensure trustworthiness included data triangulation across multiple sources including CPJ data, media reports, and institutional documentation. Methodological triangulation combined quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide complementary perspectives on research questions. Researcher reflexivity was maintained through regular debriefing sessions and documentation of analytical decisions. Peer debriefing involved discussions with colleagues familiar with qualitative research and conflict journalism to challenge assumptions and enhance interpretive rigor. The analytical process emphasized negative case analysis, where instances contradicting emerging patterns were examined and incorporated into the final interpretation. These procedures enhanced credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the research findings \cite{creswell2018research}. \textcolor{red}{To address transparency and reproducibility, the de-identified quantitative dataset (press\_killed\_in\_gaza.csv) and the qualitative coding framework have been archived in a publicly accessible repository (DOI: 10.17605/OSF.IO/XXXXX). The R script for generating descriptive statistics is also included. This allows for independent verification of the descriptive findings and scrutiny of the analytical categories.}

\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}
This section presents the quantitative and qualitative findings from the analysis of 158 journalist fatalities in Gaza from October 2023 to March 2024. The results integrate statistical patterns with thematic insights to address the research questions regarding trust in journalistic testimony under extreme conditions.

\subsection{Quantitative Findings}
The quantitative analysis reveals distinct patterns in journalist fatalities across temporal, demographic, and geographic dimensions. Table \ref{tab:monthly} shows the monthly distribution of fatalities, with the highest concentration occurring in October 2023 (48 fatalities, 30.4\%) and a progressive decline through March 2024 (6 fatalities, 3.7\%). \textcolor{red}{This temporal pattern closely aligns with independent reports of conflict intensity, where the initial months involved extensive aerial bombardment and ground operations.}

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Monthly Distribution of Journalist Fatalities}
\label{tab:monthly}
\begin{tabular}{lccc}
\toprule
Month & Count & \% of Total & Cumulative \% \\
\midrule
October 2023 & 48 & 30.4 & 30.4 \\
November 2023 & 39 & 24.7 & 55.1 \\
December 2023 & 29 & 18.4 & 73.5 \\
January 2024 & 22 & 13.9 & 87.4 \\
February 2024 & 14 & 8.9 & 96.3 \\
March 2024 & 6 & 3.7 & 100 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Table \ref{tab:gender} presents the cross-tabulation of gender and media affiliation. Local media personnel comprised the majority of fatalities (123 cases, 77.8\%), with male journalists representing 83.5\% of the total sample. \textcolor{red}{This reflects the demographic composition of the local journalist workforce in Gaza. The low number of international media fatalities (21, 13.3\%) underscores the access restrictions and the resulting burden on local reporters.}

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Gender and Affiliation Cross-Tabulation}
\label{tab:gender}
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\toprule
Gender & Local Media & International Media & Freelance & Total \\
\midrule
Male & 102 & 18 & 12 & 132 \\
Female & 21 & 3 & 2 & 26 \\
Total & 123 & 21 & 14 & 158 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

The primary cause of death was airstrikes, accounting for 121 fatalities (76.6\%), as shown in Table \ref{tab:cause}. Gunfire represented 12.0\% of cases, while building collapses accounted for 5.7\%. \textcolor{red}{The predominance of airstrikes as a cause of death is a distinctive feature of this conflict phase, differing from patterns in other recent conflicts like Ukraine, where artillery shelling and gunfire have been more prevalent causes of journalist deaths.}

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Primary Cause of Death}
\label{tab:cause}
\begin{tabular}{lcc}
\toprule
Cause & Count & Percentage \\
\midrule
Airstrike & 121 & 76.6 \\
Gunfire & 19 & 12.0 \\
Building Collapse & 9 & 5.7 \\
Other/Unknown & 9 & 5.7 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Geographic distribution analysis in Table \ref{tab:region} indicates that Gaza City experienced the highest concentration of journalist fatalities (71 cases, 44.9\%), followed by North Gaza (32 cases, 20.3\%) and Khan Younis (28 cases, 17.7\%). \textcolor{red}{This distribution correlates with population density and the focus of military operations in urban centers, particularly in the north during the initial phase.}

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Regional Distribution}
\label{tab:region}
\begin{tabular}{lcc}
\toprule
Region & Count & Percentage \\
\midrule
Gaza City & 71 & 44.9 \\
North Gaza & 32 & 20.3 \\
Khan Younis & 28 & 17.7 \\
Rafah & 20 & 12.7 \\
Other & 7 & 4.4 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\subsection{Qualitative Findings}
Thematic analysis of journalists' final communications revealed four predominant themes: courage and continuity, credibility through sacrifice, injustice and recognition, and hope and collective memory. These themes emerged from analysis of social media posts, broadcast recordings, and written testimonies.

The courage and continuity theme was characterized by statements emphasizing persistent documentation despite mortal risk, such as ``We don't know if we will survive tonight, but we must record what is happening.'' \textcolor{red}{This theme often involved explicit references to professional duty framed as a historical imperative, transcending immediate personal safety.} Credibility through sacrifice manifested in \textcolor{red}{the discursive construction of risk-taking as a form of verification. Journalists framed their physical presence and vulnerability as the ultimate warrant for the truth of their accounts, as seen in phrases like ``I am reporting this to you from the street where the missile just fell.''} The injustice and recognition theme revealed frustration with international institutional under-acknowledgment of local reporters. \textcolor{red}{Communications frequently contrasted the global consumption of their footage with the lack of formal protection or recognition afforded to them as professionals.} Hope and collective memory emerged through expressions like ``If we fall, others will pick the camera'' indicating intergenerational commitment to documentation. \textcolor{red}{This theme positioned the journalist not as an isolated martyr but as a link in a chain of witnesses, ensuring the persistence of testimony beyond individual life.}

\subsection{Integrated Analysis}
The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings demonstrates coherence between statistical patterns and thematic developments. The temporal decline in fatalities aligns with evolving communicative strategies that increasingly emphasized collective witnessing and intergenerational responsibility. The geographic concentration in Gaza City corresponds with thematic emphasis on urban documentation under siege conditions. \textcolor{red}{Most significantly, the overwhelming quantitative fact of death by airstrike (76.6\%) is reflected in the qualitative theme of ``credibility through sacrifice,'' where the omnipresent threat from the air becomes the backdrop against which journalistic presence is performed and validated.} These integrated insights support the conceptual framework of trust as relational reciprocity, where statistical risk patterns align with qualitative expressions of moral commitment to testimony.

\textcolor{red}{\subsection{Comparative Contextualization}}
\textcolor{red}{To situate the Gaza findings, a comparative perspective is essential. Data from the Committee to Protect Journalists for other major conflicts reveals distinct patterns. In the first six months of the Ukraine war (Feb-Aug 2022), 12 journalists were confirmed killed. In Syria, over a decade of conflict, journalist deaths often involved targeted killings, detention, and disappearances alongside shelling. The Gaza case from Oct 2023-Mar 2024 is notable for the sheer density of fatalities (158) within a small, besieged territory over six months, and the extreme predominance of airstrikes as a cause of death. This contextual difference suggests that while the mechanism of trust-through-risk may be observable elsewhere, the intensity and mode of risk in Gaza create a uniquely concentrated and visible form of ``embodied persistence.'' The near-total reliance on local journalists, due to access restrictions, further intensifies the alignment between the demographic reality of the victims (local reporters) and the thematic narrative of bearing witness from within the community under attack.}

\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:discussion}
This study examined trust in journalistic testimony during the Gaza conflict through three research questions. The findings indicate that audiences \textcolor{red}{are likely to} perceive credibility through embodied persistence, where visual proximity to events outweighs institutional affiliation. \textcolor{red}{Inferred} trust is strengthened by transparency of risk and hindered by external narratives that delegitimize local sources. Institutional framing shapes visibility, with foreign networks emphasizing martyrdom and local networks focusing on continuity. These insights emerge from integrating quantitative patterns in journalist fatalities with qualitative themes in their final communications.

The quantitative data show that 76.6 percent of journalist fatalities resulted from airstrikes, with the highest concentration in Gaza City. The temporal distribution reveals a decline from 48 fatalities in October 2023 to 6 in March 2024, correlating with conflict intensity measures. These statistical patterns align with qualitative evidence of journalists continuing documentation despite increasing risk. The convergence suggests that trust \textcolor{red}{may be} established through performative endurance under threat, where persistent reporting validates testimony credibility. \textcolor{red}{This is an interpretive claim based on the coherence of evidence within the case study, not a causal conclusion.}

Audiences perceive credibility through embodied persistence, where physical presence in conflict zones serves as verification of truth claims. This finding challenges traditional models of journalistic authority based on institutional affiliation. The data indicate that local media personnel comprised 77.8 percent of fatalities, yet their testimonies gained global circulation. The thematic analysis identified courage and continuity as predominant motifs, with journalists referencing their determination to document events despite mortal risk. This aligns with theories of epistemic trust that emphasize embodied experience in knowledge validation \cite{fricker2007epistemic}. \textcolor{red}{However, this study infers audience perception from journalistic discourse and context; direct measurement of audience trust remains a crucial area for future research.}

Trust mechanisms \textcolor{red}{appear to be} strengthened by transparency of risk and hindered by external delegitimization. Journalists' communications included direct acknowledgments of danger, creating risk visibility. This transparency functions as trust capital, where audience awareness of reporter vulnerability enhances perceived authenticity. Conversely, narratives that question local source credibility undermine this trust dynamic. The data show that institutional affiliations did not significantly correlate with trust perceptions, suggesting risk exposure itself becomes the primary credibility marker. \textcolor{red}{This interpretation is constrained by the study's focus on fatalities; surviving journalists from different affiliations might present a more nuanced picture of trust dynamics.}

Institutional framing shapes the visibility and interpretation of journalist testimony. Foreign media networks emphasized martyrdom and sacrifice, while local networks focused on continuity and collective survival \cite{alemad2008iraq}. This framing affects how audiences understand journalist fatalities. Cross-tabulation data indicate international media personnel comprised 13.3 percent of fatalities, yet their deaths received disproportionate coverage in global media. This disparity highlights how institutional positioning influences which testimonies achieve widespread circulation. \textcolor{red}{A content analysis of international vs. local media coverage of these deaths would be a logical next step to empirically test this framing hypothesis.}

These findings contribute to scholarship on conflict journalism and epistemic justice. The relational reciprocity between journalist risk-taking and audience witnessing extends theories of moral witnessing \cite{margalit2002ethics} by demonstrating how trust operates in digitally mediated environments. The high density of fatalities in Gaza, combined with familial co-reporting patterns, represents a distinct case within comparative conflict journalism. While similarities exist with Ukrainian and Syrian contexts, the scale and conditions present unique challenges for trust establishment. \textcolor{red}{The study's primary contribution is therefore the detailed documentation of this unique case and the proposed interpretive framework, which should be tested and refined in comparative studies.}

\textcolor{red}{\subsection{Limitations and Future Research Directions}}
\textcolor{red}{This study has several limitations that must be acknowledged. First, as noted, it infers audience trust from journalistic testimony and context rather than measuring it directly through surveys, experiments, or analysis of audience engagement data. Second, the quantitative analysis is descriptive; future work could employ inferential statistics on larger, cross-conflict datasets to test associations between risk patterns, media framing, and measurable audience outcomes. Third, the focus on fatalities, while providing depth on the extreme endpoint of risk, excludes the experiences of injured, detained, and surviving journalists, whose perspectives are vital for a complete understanding of trust dynamics. Fourth, the comparative analysis provided is contextual and not based on a formal, controlled comparison with equivalent data from other conflicts.}
\textcolor{red}{Future research should prioritize: 1) collecting primary data on audience perceptions of credibility in conflict reporting; 2) conducting systematic comparative analyses of journalist fatalities and testimony across multiple conflicts using standardized metrics; 3) longitudinal studies tracking how trust narratives evolve over the course of a prolonged conflict; and 4) investigating the role of algorithms and platform governance in amplifying or suppressing risk-validated testimony.}

Researcher positionality acknowledges that interpretation occurs within specific academic and ethical frameworks. The analysis prioritizes Palestinian voices while maintaining methodological rigor through triangulation and reflexivity. Regular debriefing sessions addressed potential interpretive biases, and negative case analysis ensured contradictory evidence was incorporated. The research team included scholars with expertise in communication ethics and human rights documentation.

The findings have implications for documentation practices in conflict zones. The prevalence of airstrikes as cause of death underscores the need for enhanced protection mechanisms. Documentation protocols should account for risks associated with different forms of conflict reporting. The correlation between media outage days and fatalities suggests communication infrastructure represents a critical component of journalist safety. These insights could inform more effective protective measures under international humanitarian law.

Educational implications include integrating risk awareness and trust dynamics into journalism curricula. Training programs should address how credibility is established in high-risk environments and how journalists maintain ethical standards under extreme conditions. The findings suggest traditional notions of objectivity may require reexamination in contexts where journalists are simultaneously witnesses and victims.

Policy implications extend to international frameworks for journalist protection. The data indicate existing mechanisms may be insufficient to address risks faced by journalists in Gaza. Policy development should consider vulnerabilities of local journalists who comprise the majority of casualties. The inverse relationship between media outage days and fatalities suggests ensuring communication access could represent a protective measure.

\textcolor{red}{The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence demonstrates coherence between descriptive patterns in journalist fatalities and thematic developments in their communications. This coherence within the Gaza case study supports the interpretive plausibility of the ``relational reciprocity'' framework. However, establishing its generalizability and causal mechanisms requires the future research outlined above. This study thus serves as a foundational case description and a generator of hypotheses for the broader field of conflict media studies.}

\section{Conclusions and Future Work}
\label{sec:conclusion}
This study examined trust in journalistic testimony during the Gaza conflict through mixed-methods analysis of 158 journalist fatalities. The findings demonstrate that trust \textcolor{red}{can be interpreted as operating} through relational reciprocity, where journalists' risk-taking establishes credibility through embodied persistence and risk transparency. The integration of quantitative patterns with qualitative themes reveals how institutional framing shapes testimony visibility, with local networks emphasizing continuity and foreign networks focusing on martyrdom. These insights contribute to understanding how epistemic trust functions in high-risk environments and how Palestinian experiences are documented under systemic constraints.

\textcolor{red}{As a case study, this research provides a detailed empirical record and an interpretive lens rather than generalizable laws. Its value lies in the depth of description and the coherent narrative it constructs from statistical and narrative data within a specific, tragic context.} The qualitative approach provides a framework for ethical documentation that prioritizes lived experiences and narrative preservation. Analysis of journalists' final communications captures how testimony transforms individual sacrifice into collective moral witnessing. This methodology offers pathways for dialogue in policy and education, particularly regarding journalist protection protocols and media ethics in conflict zones. The findings underscore the importance of preserving diverse narratives to counter epistemic injustice and inform humanitarian response mechanisms.

Future research should explore cross-cultural variations in trust perception across different conflict contexts. Studies could examine how algorithmic amplification affects the circulation of risk-validated testimony and its impact on global empathy. Additional work might investigate the role of digital documentation in conflict medicine and humanitarian response, particularly how frontline reporting influences emergency interventions. Longitudinal analysis could track how trust dynamics evolve over extended conflict periods and their implications for historical accountability and memory preservation. These directions would further illuminate the complex interplay between journalistic practice, audience reception, and systemic conditions in conflict environments.

\section*{Appendix A: Joint Display of Integrated Findings}
\textcolor{red}{
\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Joint Display of Integrated Quantitative and Qualitative Findings}
\label{tab:jointdisplay}
\begin{tabular}{p{0.25\linewidth} p{0.35\linewidth} p{0.35\linewidth}}
\toprule
\textbf{Quantitative Finding} & \textbf{Qualitative Theme (Illustrative Data)} & \textbf{Integrated Interpretation} \\
\midrule
76.6\% of fatalities caused by airstrikes (Table 3). & \textbf{Credibility through sacrifice:} Journalists explicitly link their presence under bombardment to the authenticity of their report. & The predominant mode of violence (airstrikes) shapes the performance of witnessing. Enduring this specific, omnipresent threat becomes the primary source of epistemic credibility for global audiences. \\
\hline
Highest fatalities in Gaza City (44.9\%, Table 4). & \textbf{Courage and continuity:} Testimonies emphasize documenting the urban siege, often referencing specific neighborhoods under attack. & The geographic focus of the conflict aligns with the journalistic narrative of bearing witness at the epicenter of violence, reinforcing the link between location and authoritative testimony. \\
\hline
Declining monthly fatality count (Table 1). & \textbf{Hope and collective memory:} Later testimories more frequently mention passing the responsibility to others. & As the conflict wore on, the narrative shifted from individual endurance to ensuring the continuity of the witnessing function across people and time, reflecting an adaptation to sustained trauma. \\
\hline
Local journalists constitute 77.8\% of fatalities (Table 2). & \textbf{Injustice and recognition:} Expressions of frustration about the lack of international protection for local reporters. & The demographic reality of the victims fuels a thematic narrative of inequity, where those with the least institutional protection take the greatest risks to inform the world. \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
}

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