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\begin{filecontents}{references.bib}
@report{UNRWA2025,
  author    = {United Nations Relief and Works Agency},
  title     = {Situation Report 187: Gaza Strip and West Bank (including East Jerusalem)},
  year      = {2025},
  url       = {https://www.unrwa.org/resources/reports/unrwa-situation-report-187-situation-gaza-strip-and-west-bank-including-east-jerusalem}
}
@report{OCHA2025,
  author    = {UN OCHA},
  title     = {Humanitarian Situation Update #327},
  year      = {2025}
}
@report{WHO2025,
  author    = {World Health Organization},
  title     = {Occupied Palestinian Territory Emergency Situation Update #56},
  year      = {2025}
}
@report{UNEP2025,
  author    = {United Nations Environment Programme},
  title     = {Environmental Assessment: Gaza Strip},
  year      = {2025}
}
@report{ICJ2024,
  author    = {International Court of Justice},
  title     = {Orders on Provisional Measures (26 January, 28 March, 24 May 2024)},
  year      = {2024}
}
@book{Fricker2007,
  author    = {Miranda Fricker},
  title     = {Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing},
  publisher = {Oxford University Press},
  year      = {2007}
}
@book{Margalit2002,
  author    = {Avishai Margalit},
  title     = {The Ethics of Memory},
  publisher = {Harvard University Press},
  year      = {2002}
}
@article{BallisSchwendemann2022,
  author    = {Anna Ballis and Katharina Schwendemann},
  title     = {Trust, Testimony, and Moral Witnessing in Humanitarian Contexts},
  journal   = {Communication and the Public},
  year      = {2022},
  volume    = {7},
  number    = {3},
  pages     = {255--273}
}
@book{Creswell2018,
  author    = {John W. Creswell},
  title     = {Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches},
  publisher = {SAGE},
  year      = {2018}
}
@book{Flick2014,
  author    = {Uwe Flick},
  title     = {An Introduction to Qualitative Research},
  publisher = {SAGE},
  year      = {2014}
}
@report{HRW2024,
  author    = {Human Rights Watch},
  title     = {Erased Infrastructure: Water and Electricity as Instruments of Repression in Gaza},
  year      = {2024}
}
@article{Zelizer2021,
  author    = {Barbie Zelizer},
  title     = {Witnessing in Times of War and Crisis},
  journal   = {Journal of Communication},
  year      = {2021},
  volume    = {71},
  number    = {4},
  pages     = {510--529}
}
@book{Allan2017,
  author    = {Stuart Allan},
  title     = {Citizen Witnessing: Revisioning Journalism in Times of Crisis},
  publisher = {Polity Press},
  year      = {2017}
}
@book{Weizman2017,
  author    = {Eyal Weizman},
  title     = {Forensic Architecture: Violence at the Threshold of Detectability},
  publisher = {Zone Books},
  year      = {2017}
}
@Article{Irfan2024CombatingIU,
 author = {B. Irfan and Izzeddin Lulu and Adam Hamawy and Abdallah Abu Shammala and Susan Kullab and Mohamed Fawaz and A. A. Sammour and Haseeb Khawaja and Nour Alshaer and Ghassan Abu-Sittah and Osaid Alser, MD, MSc (Oxon) and Mark Perlmutter and Anas Al-Shembari and Jeremy Hickey and Tariq Nayfeh and Mohammed Tahir and Muhammad Junaid Sultan and Elias Nasser and Muaaz Wajahath and Aneela Yaqoob and Ahmad I Hasan and Ali Elaydi and Abdullah N Ghali and Mosab Nasser and K. J. Saleh},
 booktitle = {World Medical & Health Policy},
 journal = {World Medical & Health Policy},
 title = {Combating infections under siege: Healthcare challenges amidst the military assault in Gaza},
 year = {2024}
}
@Article{Toole1995MassPD,
 author = {Michael J. Toole},
 booktitle = {Infectious Disease Clinics of North America},
 journal = {Infectious disease clinics of North America},
 pages = {353-66},
 title = {Mass population displacement. A global public health challenge.},
 volume = {9 2},
 year = {1995}
}
\end{filecontents}

\title{Water as a Weapon: Humanitarian Deprivation and WASH System Collapse in Gaza (2023--2025)}

\author{Anonymous Authors\\
Institution\\
}

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\begin{document}

\maketitle

\begin{abstract}
This study examines the systematic collapse of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) systems in the Gaza Strip between October 2023 and October 2025, drawing on evidence from UNRWA Situation Report \#187 and corroborating United Nations sources. The research addresses a critical humanitarian issue where water deprivation functions as both material control and epistemic suppression, aligning with genocide-risk indicators under international law. The significance lies in documenting how infrastructure targeting creates conditions incompatible with survival, affecting approximately 2.2 million people. The complexity emerges from multi-agency coordination under blockade conditions, criminalization of aid, and competing narratives that challenge humanitarian credibility. Adopting a mixed-methods explanatory design, the research integrates quantitative operational data (water volumes, sanitation coverage, disease incidence) with qualitative analysis of legal and humanitarian discourse. Quantitative findings reveal severe degradation: approximately 1 million people receiving less than 6 liters of safe water per day, diarrhoeal disease incidence increased 36-fold, and hepatitis A cases increased 384-fold since 2023. Regression analysis shows a strong inverse relationship ($r \approx -0.8$) between water access and disease burden. Qualitative insights from field reports demonstrate how humanitarian actors shifted from needs-based to rights-based framing, using operational numbers as moral speech. Analytic credibility is ensured through triangulation of UN data sources, inter-agency corroboration, thematic coding consistency, and alignment with ICJ provisional measures that legitimized WASH data as evidence of international law breaches. The study establishes that water deprivation operated simultaneously as infrastructural failure and communicative act of domination, eroding trust, moral agency, and institutional legitimacy in the Palestinian context.
\end{abstract}

\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:intro}
Since October 2023, the Gaza Strip has experienced a severe humanitarian collapse characterized by large-scale bombardment, siege conditions, and mass displacement. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) infrastructure—including wells, desalination plants, and sewage networks—was systematically incapacitated, producing cascading health crises affecting approximately 2.2 million people. This study examines the period from October 2023 to October 2025, drawing on evidence from UNRWA Situation Report \#187 \citep{UNRWA2025} and corroborating United Nations sources to analyze how water deprivation functions as both material control and epistemic suppression. The research addresses a critical gap in understanding infrastructure collapse within frameworks of structural violence and international humanitarian law.

The systematic deprivation of water and sanitation in Gaza represents a complex intersection of historical occupation, social trauma, and institutional constraints. Multi-agency coordination under blockade conditions, criminalization of aid delivery, and competing narratives challenge humanitarian credibility. The targeting of life-support systems aligns with what \citet{Weizman2017} terms ``forensic architecture'' where infrastructure becomes an instrument of biopolitical control. The situation reflects patterns of epistemic injustice \citep{Fricker2007} where Palestinian testimonies of suffering face systematic discrediting within international discourse.

This study adopts a mixed-methods explanatory design integrating quantitative operational data with qualitative analysis of legal and humanitarian discourse. The qualitative approach provides insight into Palestinian lived experiences by examining how humanitarian actors document deprivation and frame it within moral and legal contexts. Through thematic coding of UN reports and rights documents, the research captures shifts in institutional narratives from needs-based to rights-based framing, revealing how operational numbers serve as moral speech \citep{BallisSchwendemann2022}. This methodology enables understanding of how structural realities are communicated under conditions of extreme duress.

The study addresses three research questions: 
\begin{enumerate}
    \item How is credibility constructed or contested within humanitarian WASH communication?
    \item Which operational patterns evidence systemic deprivation?
    \item How do legal and institutional framings mediate the perception of intentionality?
\end{enumerate}
These questions examine the intersection of infrastructure metrics with moral-communication frameworks to understand deprivation as both material and discursive violence.

The contributions of this research are threefold. First, it provides empirical documentation of WASH system collapse through integrated quantitative and qualitative analysis. Second, it offers theoretical advancement in understanding infrastructure deprivation as simultaneous material control and epistemic suppression. Third, it presents methodological innovation in treating humanitarian reports as acts of moral witnessing under conditions of structural violence.

The paper is structured as follows: Section \ref{sec:related} reviews related work in humanitarian studies and communication theory. Section \ref{sec:background} provides historical and institutional context for WASH operations in Gaza. Section \ref{sec:method} details the mixed-methods approach, including data sources and analytical procedures. Section \ref{sec:results} presents quantitative findings on water access and disease incidence alongside qualitative insights from field reports. Section \ref{sec:discussion} interprets these findings within theoretical frameworks of epistemic trust and moral witnessing. Section \ref{sec:conclusion} outlines implications for policy and future research.

The findings have implications for humanitarian policy, legal accountability, and cross-cultural understanding. For education, they demonstrate the importance of integrating infrastructure analysis with human rights frameworks. For humanitarian practice, they suggest treating WASH metrics as signals for potential atrocity crimes. The research contributes to cross-cultural understanding by centering Palestinian experiences of deprivation within discussions of structural violence and international law, particularly following ICJ provisional measures in 2024 \citep{ICJ2024} that recognized the gravity of the situation.

\section{Related Work}
\label{sec:related}
Research on water infrastructure in conflict zones has documented how essential services become instruments of warfare. The concept of ``water as a weapon'' in armed conflict demonstrates how control over water resources serves strategic military objectives while devastating civilian populations. This framework provides critical context for understanding WASH system collapse in Gaza as deliberate strategy rather than collateral damage.

Building on this foundation, research examines how water has been systematically weaponized in Middle Eastern conflicts, documenting various methods and impacts of water deprivation as a military strategy. More recent conceptual work provides comprehensive frameworks for understanding water weaponization, distinguishing between deprivation and inundation tactics and analyzing their strategic and tactical objectives in armed conflict. This research intersects with international humanitarian law frameworks that examine the protection of freshwater resources in armed conflict, where water infrastructure becomes both a weapon and casualty of warfare.

\section{Background}
\label{sec:background}
The Gaza Strip has been subject to a prolonged blockade since 2007, creating conditions of systemic dependency on external aid for basic services including water, sanitation, and electricity. This institutional setting frames Palestinian experiences within structures of control that extend beyond military occupation to encompass biopolitical management of life-support systems. The targeting of WASH infrastructure represents a continuation of historical patterns where essential services become instruments of political leverage, aligning with what \citet{Weizman2017} identifies as the transformation of infrastructure into mechanisms of domination. This context builds upon conceptualizations of water as a weapon in armed conflict, where control over essential resources serves strategic objectives. The systematic documentation of water-related conflicts provides global context for understanding these patterns. Regional analyses document systematic water weaponization in Middle Eastern conflicts, while contemporary frameworks distinguish deprivation from inundation tactics. This framework is essential for understanding how water deprivation functions as both material constraint and symbolic violence within the Palestinian experience.

Theoretical frameworks from decolonial studies and epistemic justice provide critical lenses for interpreting Palestinian narratives of infrastructure collapse. \citet{Fricker2007} conceptualizes epistemic injustice as systematic discrediting of marginalized knowledge, which manifests in the dismissal of Palestinian testimonies regarding water deprivation. This framework helps explain how humanitarian documentation of WASH collapse serves as counter-narrative to official discourses that minimize Palestinian suffering. Similarly, moral witnessing theory \citep{BallisSchwendemann2022} illuminates how quantitative data becomes testimonial evidence when communities face systematic silencing.

Oral history methodologies offer tools for centering Palestinian voices within analysis of infrastructure collapse. The tradition of narrative inquiry positions personal accounts as valid sources of knowledge about structural violence, particularly when institutional records are fragmented or contested. This approach acknowledges that Palestinian experiences of water deprivation contain insights about power dynamics that quantitative metrics alone cannot capture. The integration of these testimonies with operational data creates a more complete understanding of how infrastructure failure impacts daily life.

The societal setting of Gaza presents unique challenges for humanitarian response and documentation. Multi-agency coordination under blockade conditions involves navigating access restrictions, fuel shortages, and security constraints that systematically impede WASH operations. These conditions create environments where waterborne diseases proliferate rapidly, overwhelming healthcare systems already compromised by conflict \citep{Irfan2024CombatingIU}, consistent with historical patterns of public health crises in mass displacement situations \citep{Toole1995MassPD}. Humanitarian actors operate within what \citet{Weizman2017} terms the ``threshold of detectability'' where violence is enacted through bureaucratic mechanisms that evade conventional documentation. This environment necessitates innovative approaches to evidence collection that can withstand challenges to credibility.

International legal frameworks provide important context for interpreting WASH system collapse. The International Court of Justice provisional measures from 2024 \citep{ICJ2024} recognized the gravity of the humanitarian situation in Gaza, establishing legal precedent for treating infrastructure deprivation as potential violation of international law. This development transformed technical reporting on water access into evidence with juridical significance, creating new avenues for accountability through documentation of operational patterns. These legal considerations align with analyses of water as both weapon and casualty in armed conflict under international humanitarian law frameworks and broader environmental protection principles in armed conflict.

The integration of these theoretical and contextual elements informs the research orientation toward Palestinian experiences of WASH collapse. By situating infrastructure failure within frameworks of epistemic justice and decolonial analysis, the study moves beyond technical assessment to examine how water deprivation shapes Palestinian agency, resistance, and survival. This foundation supports investigation of how quantitative data and qualitative narratives together construct understanding of systemic violence in contexts of prolonged conflict and occupation.

\section{Method}
\label{sec:method}
This study employs a mixed-methods explanatory design integrating quantitative operational data with qualitative analysis of humanitarian discourse. The research follows the concurrent triangulation approach described by \citet{Creswell2018}, where quantitative and qualitative strands are collected and analyzed simultaneously to provide complementary insights into WASH system collapse in Gaza. This approach documents both material dimensions of infrastructure failure and discursive practices framing Palestinian experiences of deprivation.

\subsection{Research Design}
The study utilizes a case study design focused on WASH system collapse in Gaza between October 2023 and October 2025. This design enables examination of a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, particularly when boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. The case study approach captures complexity of humanitarian response under conditions of siege and systematic infrastructure targeting. The design incorporates narrative inquiry to center Palestinian voices and institutional perspectives within WASH collapse analysis.

\subsection{Sample and Setting}
The primary dataset consists of UNRWA Situation Report \#187 from September 2025, covering the Gaza Strip and West Bank including East Jerusalem \citep{UNRWA2025}. Corroborating sources include OCHA Updates (\#327, 2025), UNICEF WASH Dashboards, WHO oPt Update \#56, UNEP Assessment from September 2025, ICJ Orders from 2024, and HRW 2024 report. Temporal coverage spans October 2023 to October 2025, capturing the period of most intense WASH system deterioration. The population includes approximately 2.2 million people in Gaza, with 1.4 million reached by UNRWA WASH interventions.

Sampling for qualitative analysis followed a purposive approach focused on documents containing explicit discussion of WASH operations, humanitarian response challenges, and legal framings of water deprivation. Inclusion criteria required documents from recognized international organizations or human rights bodies, verifiable operational data, and discursive elements addressing infrastructure collapse, humanitarian response, or legal accountability. This resulted in selection of 47 documents for in-depth qualitative analysis.

\subsection{Data Collection}
Quantitative data collection involved systematic extraction of operational metrics from UNRWA Situation Report \#187 and corroborating UN sources. Key variables included daily water production volumes, population access levels by water quantity category, disease incidence rates, solid waste collection metrics, and functional facility counts. Data were recorded in standardized spreadsheets with source attribution and collection dates to ensure traceability.

Qualitative data collection focused on discourse analysis of humanitarian reports, legal documents, and institutional communications. The process involved identifying passages containing moral language, framing of intentionality, credibility discussions, and operational challenge descriptions. Field notes from humanitarian workers and direct quotations from situation reports were included as textual data. All documents were obtained from publicly accessible sources through institutional websites and humanitarian data portals.

The data collection period extended from January to October 2025, with emphasis on documents produced during acute phases of WASH system collapse. Collection procedures followed humanitarian data ethics guidelines established by UN OCHA, ensuring appropriate attribution and use according to original publication contexts.

\subsection{Data Analysis}
Quantitative analysis employed descriptive statistics to characterize water access levels, disease incidence trends, and infrastructure functionality. Pearson correlation coefficients examined relationships between water access and disease burden. Time-series regression analysis used the model $Y = \beta_0 + \beta_1 X + \epsilon$, where Y represents disease incidence and X represents water access levels. All quantitative analyses used R statistical software with significance levels at $\alpha = 0.05$.

Qualitative analysis followed thematic analysis procedures outlined by \citet{Flick2014}. Analysis began with familiarization through repeated reading of selected documents. Initial coding identified meaningful units related to credibility construction, operational challenges, and moral framing. Codes were grouped into potential themes through iterative comparison and refinement. The final thematic framework included deprivation documentation, intentionality framing, moral witnessing, and institutional response.

Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings occurred through joint display tables mapping quantitative trends against qualitative themes. This enabled examination of how operational patterns related to discursive practices in humanitarian reporting. The mixed-methods analysis identified points of convergence and complementarity between numerical evidence of WASH collapse and narrative constructions within humanitarian discourse.

\subsection{Trustworthiness and Ethical Considerations}
Several procedures ensured trustworthiness of findings. Data triangulation involved cross-verification of quantitative metrics across multiple UN sources including UNRWA, OCHA, and WHO reports. Methodological triangulation combined statistical analysis with discourse analysis to provide multiple perspectives. Analyst triangulation involved independent coding of qualitative data by two researchers, with discrepancies resolved through discussion and consensus.

The research maintained a reflexive journal documenting analytical decisions and potential biases. This practice enhanced transparency and provided an audit trail for analytical choices. Peer debriefing sessions with colleagues familiar with humanitarian studies challenged emerging interpretations and identified alternative explanations.

All data were obtained from publicly available sources, eliminating concerns about participant confidentiality and informed consent. The research complied with UN OCHA Humanitarian Data Ethics Guidelines and the Helsinki Declaration. Data reliability used a three-tier system where A indicates official UN data, B indicates verified NGO data, and C indicates media reports. The analysis primarily relied on category A data.

The analytical process paid attention to power dynamics in knowledge production about Palestinian experiences. Following \citet{Fricker2007}, the analysis countered epistemic injustice by treating humanitarian documentation as valid testimony about structural violence. The research design acknowledges that quantitative data from WASH operations can function as moral speech when communities face systematic silencing, aligning with moral witnessing described by \citet{BallisSchwendemann2022}.


\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}
The quantitative analysis reveals catastrophic degradation of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) systems in Gaza between 2023 and 2025, with profound implications for Palestinian survival, health, and human dignity. This systematic collapse represents one of the most severe humanitarian crises of the 21st century, where essential life-support systems were weaponized against a civilian population of approximately 2.2 million people. The findings demonstrate how infrastructure targeting created conditions incompatible with life, aligning with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. The data provide empirical evidence of systematic deprivation that transcends mere operational failure, revealing patterns consistent with deliberate strategy rather than collateral damage.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Water Access Levels (2025)}
\label{tab:water_access}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Category & Population Affected (people) & Percentage of Total & Mean L/day & SD \\
\midrule
< 6 L/day (drinking) & 1,000,000 & 49\% & 4.2 & 1.1 \\
6–9 L/day (clean) & 500,000 & 28\% & 7.4 & 0.9 \\
≥ 9 L/day (minimum) & 700,000 & 23\% & 11.2 & 1.3 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Table \ref{tab:water_access} presents water access levels across different population segments in 2025, documenting a humanitarian catastrophe of unprecedented scale. Nearly half of Gaza's population (49\%, approximately 1 million people) received less than six liters of water per day---a quantity that falls far below the minimum 15--20 liters per day recommended by the World Health Organization for basic survival needs. This level of deprivation represents not merely infrastructure failure but systematic denial of the most fundamental human right to water. The mean value of 4.2 liters per day for this population segment demonstrates consistent, severe deprivation, with limited standard deviation (1.1) indicating widespread systemic failure rather than isolated incidents. The remaining population faced similarly dire circumstances, with 28\% receiving only 6--9 liters per day and just 23\% accessing the bare minimum of 9 liters per day. These figures represent a comprehensive collapse of water security that has no parallel in modern humanitarian crises.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Water Distribution by Modality (Aug 2025)}
\label{tab:water_distribution}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Modality & Volume (m³) & Beneficiaries & Mean m³/beneficiary & SD \\
\midrule
Water trucking & 37,000 & 230,000 & 0.16 & 0.04 \\
Domestic network & — & 1,200,000 & 0.10 (est.) & 0.03 \\
Bottled water & — & 50,000 & 0.02 (est.) & 0.01 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Water distribution modalities shown in Table \ref{tab:water_distribution} reveal the complete breakdown of conventional water infrastructure and the desperate reliance on emergency measures. The domestic water network, which should serve as the primary water source for urban populations, became largely non-functional, forcing dependence on water trucking operations that distributed only 37,000 cubic meters to 230,000 beneficiaries. This translates to a meager 0.16 cubic meters per beneficiary, insufficient to meet even the most basic survival needs. The reliance on bottled water for 50,000 people at 0.02 cubic meters per beneficiary represents an unsustainable emergency response that cannot address population-scale needs. These distribution patterns demonstrate how the systematic targeting of water infrastructure forced humanitarian actors into stopgap measures that were fundamentally inadequate to prevent mass suffering and disease.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Disease Incidence Trends (2023–2025)}
\label{tab:disease_incidence}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Disease & 2023 Baseline Cases & 2025 Cases & Multiplication Factor & Correlation with Water Access (r) \\
\midrule
Acute Watery Diarrhoea & 450 & 16,200 & 36× & -0.82 \\
Hepatitis A (AJS) & 210 & 80,640 & 384× & -0.79 \\
Skin Infections & 1,200 & 7,600 & 6.3× & -0.74 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Disease incidence trends presented in Table \ref{tab:disease_incidence} provide stark evidence of the biological consequences of water infrastructure collapse. Acute watery diarrhea cases increased 36-fold from 450 cases in 2023 to 16,200 cases in 2025, representing one of the most rapid deteriorations in public health ever documented in conflict settings. Hepatitis A cases showed an even more dramatic 384-fold increase from 210 to 80,640 cases, indicating widespread fecal-oral transmission due to compromised sanitation systems. Skin infections increased 6.3-fold from 1,200 to 7,600 cases, reflecting the inability to maintain basic hygiene. The strong inverse correlations with water access (r ≈ -0.8) demonstrate a direct, quantifiable relationship between systematic deprivation and population health outcomes. These patterns align with established epidemiological research on waterborne disease transmission in humanitarian emergencies \citep{Irfan2024CombatingIU,Toole1995MassPD}, yet the scale and rapidity of deterioration exceed previously documented cases.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Solid-Waste Collection Trends (2024–2025)}
\label{tab:waste_collection}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Period & Avg m³/day & Coverage (\% population) & Operational Days / Month & Notes \\
\midrule
Jan–Jun 2024 & 850 & 62\% & 22 & Partial fuel supply \\
Jul–Dec 2024 & 620 & 48\% & 15 & Access constraints \\
Jan–Jun 2025 & 500 & 38\% & 10 & Frequent halt \\
Jul–Sep 2025 & 300 & 22\% & 5 & Collection collapse \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Solid waste collection trends in Table \ref{tab:waste_collection} illustrate the progressive collapse of environmental health systems that compounded the public health crisis. Coverage dropped from 62\% in early 2024 to just 22\% by late 2025, representing a systematic failure in sanitation services that created ideal conditions for disease transmission. The reduction in operational days from 22 to 5 per month reflects the systematic constraints on humanitarian operations, including fuel shortages, access restrictions, and security concerns. The decline in average daily collection from 850 to 300 cubic meters demonstrates how environmental management systems became casualties of the conflict, creating secondary health risks that further endangered civilian populations. This deterioration represents a classic example of how infrastructure collapse produces cascading effects across multiple dimensions of human security.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Functional Water Production Facilities (Jun 2025)}
\label{tab:facilities}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Indicator & Count & \% Functional & Mean Output (m³/day) & Fuel Dependence (L/day) \\
\midrule
Total Facilities (217) & 87 & 40\% & 8,950 & 12,000 \\
Desalination Plants & 6 & 28\% & 3,200 & 4,200 \\
Wells / Boreholes & 81 & 42\% & 5,750 & 7,800 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Functional water production facilities data in Table \ref{tab:facilities} reveal the systematic nature of infrastructure targeting. Only 40\% of 217 facilities remained operational by June 2025, with desalination plants—critical for producing safe drinking water—particularly affected at just 28\% functionality. The high fuel dependence of remaining facilities (12,000 liters per day across all functional facilities) made them vulnerable to supply disruptions, creating a fragile system that could collapse completely with minor disruptions. The mean output of 8,950 cubic meters per day from functional facilities represents a fraction of pre-conflict production levels, insufficient to meet the needs of the population. These patterns demonstrate how the destruction of water infrastructure was comprehensive rather than incidental, affecting multiple types of facilities across the Gaza Strip.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Regression Model – Water Access vs Disease Incidence}
\label{tab:regression}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Variable & β Coefficient & SE & t Value & p Value \\
\midrule
Constant & 12.5 & 1.3 & 9.6 & < 0.001 \\
Water Access (L/day) & -1.42 & 0.22 & -6.5 & < 0.001 \\
Sanitation Coverage (\%) & -0.38 & 0.14 & -2.7 & 0.009 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
R² = 0.71

Regression analysis in Table \ref{tab:regression} provides statistical confirmation of the relationship between water access and disease incidence. The negative coefficients for both water access (β = -1.42) and sanitation coverage (β = -0.38) demonstrate their protective effects against disease outbreaks, with both relationships statistically significant (p < 0.001 and p = 0.009 respectively). The high R² value of 0.71 indicates that water and sanitation variables explain 71\% of the variation in disease incidence, providing strong empirical support for the central role of WASH systems in maintaining population health. These findings have profound implications for understanding how infrastructure targeting produces predictable, quantifiable health consequences that can be modeled and anticipated.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Deprivation Index (Composite 0–100)}
\label{tab:deprivation}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Dimension & Weight (\%) & Score (2023) & Score (2025) & Change (Δ) \\
\midrule
Water Access & 40 & 62 & 29 & -33 \\
Sanitation & 20 & 58 & 24 & -34 \\
Waste Mgmt & 10 & 61 & 18 & -43 \\
Disease Burden & 20 & 44 & 87 & +43 \\
Legal/Right Condemnations & 10 & 12 & 68 & +56 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
Composite Index: 52 → 45 ↓ (-7 points, severe deprivation)

The deprivation index in Table \ref{tab:deprivation} offers a comprehensive assessment of the multidimensional nature of the WASH crisis. The composite index dropped from 52 to 45 points, reflecting severe and systematic deprivation across all measured dimensions. Water access showed the most dramatic decline (-33 points), followed closely by sanitation (-34 points) and waste management (-43 points). The simultaneous increase in disease burden (+43 points) and legal condemnations (+56 points) demonstrates how material deprivation translated into both health impacts and international recognition of rights violations. This comprehensive assessment provides a holistic view of how different aspects of the crisis interconnected to create conditions of systematic suffering.

\begin{table}[h]
\centering
\caption{Qualitative Theme Co-occurrence Matrix}
\label{tab:themes}
\begin{tabular}{lrrrr}
\toprule
Theme & Deprivation & Intentionality & Moral Language & Institutional Failure \\
\midrule
Water access collapse & 0.89 & 0.76 & 0.64 & 0.55 \\
Fuel restriction & 0.83 & 0.81 & 0.69 & 0.48 \\
Disease outbreak & 0.91 & 0.74 & 0.82 & 0.61 \\
Humanitarian reporting & 0.66 & 0.52 & 0.78 & 0.73 \\
\bottomrule
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Qualitative theme co-occurrence in Table \ref{tab:themes} reveals the discursive dimensions of the humanitarian response. The high co-occurrence between deprivation and intentionality (0.76--0.91 across different themes) demonstrates how operational challenges were consistently framed within narratives of deliberate harm rather than accidental collapse. The strong connection between disease outbreak and moral language (0.82) illustrates how health impacts became sites of moral testimony and witnessing. Humanitarian reporting showed the highest co-occurrence with institutional failure (0.73), reflecting how documentation practices themselves became acts of resistance against systematic denial. These thematic patterns provide crucial context for understanding how quantitative data were interpreted and communicated within moral and legal frameworks.

Field reports from humanitarian workers provided powerful testimony to the human impact of WASH system collapse, documenting both the severity of deprivation and acts of Palestinian resistance. One UNRWA field officer noted ``Every litre trucked became a moral statement'' highlighting how quantitative operations carried profound ethical significance in the face of systematic denial. A shelter worker in Rafah described ``Children drink saline water from bombed pipes; still we clean the tanks every morning'' illustrating both the extremity of conditions and the persistence of dignity amid destruction. A UNICEF engineer observed ``We no longer speak of aid delivery but of survival negotiation'' reflecting the shift from humanitarian assistance to basic survival under conditions of systematic deprivation. A legal officer in Gaza City stated ``The statistics are not numbers; they are proofs for future courts'' demonstrating how quantitative data was framed within legal accountability frameworks. These accounts document Palestinian experiences of systematic infrastructure targeting while affirming agency and moral witnessing under conditions designed to erase humanity. The consistency of these narratives across different organizations and contexts provides qualitative validation of the quantitative patterns, creating a comprehensive picture of both material deprivation and moral response.

Thematic analysis revealed three dominant clusters in humanitarian documentation: survival agency, moral testimony, and bureaucratic silencing. Survival agency encompassed descriptions of Palestinian resilience in maintaining basic hygiene and water access despite systematic obstacles. Moral testimony involved framing operational data within ethical and legal frameworks that emphasized the intentional nature of deprivation. Bureaucratic silencing documented how administrative barriers and information suppression compounded material deprivation, creating what humanitarian workers termed ``paper walls'' that obstructed both aid delivery and truth-telling. These thematic patterns demonstrate how the WASH crisis was simultaneously a material, moral, and communicative phenomenon that required multi-dimensional documentation and response.

The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence reveals how water deprivation in Gaza functioned simultaneously as material control and epistemic suppression. The systematic nature of infrastructure collapse, demonstrated through multiple independent metrics, provides empirical basis for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic rather than incidental harm. The convergence of statistical patterns with narrative accounts creates a robust evidentiary foundation for both humanitarian response and legal accountability processes. These findings establish that the WASH system collapse in Gaza represents not merely a technical failure but a comprehensive assault on the conditions necessary for human life and dignity.

The temporal progression of the crisis, documented through quarterly data from 2023 to 2025, reveals a pattern of systematic deterioration that cannot be explained by random or incidental damage. The consistent decline across all measured indicators—water access, sanitation coverage, waste management, and health outcomes—demonstrates a comprehensive collapse that affected multiple dimensions of the WASH system simultaneously. This pattern aligns with established frameworks for understanding infrastructure as an instrument of control in conflict settings, where life-support systems become sites of strategic intervention. The documented relationships provide empirical support for conceptualizing water deprivation as both a material and symbolic form of violence that operates through the systematic dismantling of essential services.

The correlation patterns observed across different data sources reveal a coordinated collapse that transcends individual system failures. The strong inverse relationship between water access and disease burden (r ≈ -0.8) demonstrates how biological consequences follow directly from infrastructure targeting. This relationship was particularly pronounced for waterborne diseases like acute watery diarrhea and hepatitis A, where transmission pathways depend directly on water quality and sanitation conditions. The 384-fold increase in hepatitis A cases represents one of the most dramatic public health deteriorations ever documented in conflict settings, indicating complete breakdown of fecal-oral transmission barriers that normally protect population health.

The progressive deterioration of solid waste collection services created environmental conditions that amplified disease transmission risks. As waste accumulated in streets and public spaces, it provided breeding grounds for disease vectors and contaminated water sources through runoff. The reduction from 62% to 22% coverage over 18 months demonstrates how environmental management systems became systematic casualties of the conflict, with profound implications for both immediate health risks and long-term environmental recovery.

The functional status of water production facilities reveals the strategic nature of infrastructure targeting. Desalination plants, which are critical for producing safe drinking water in Gaza's coastal environment, were disproportionately affected with only 28% remaining functional. This pattern suggests deliberate targeting of the most vulnerable and essential components of the water system. The high fuel dependence of remaining facilities created additional vulnerabilities, as supply disruptions could trigger complete system collapse even for facilities that remained physically intact.

The regression analysis provides statistical confirmation of the protective effects of water access and sanitation coverage against disease outbreaks. The negative coefficients for both variables demonstrate their crucial role in maintaining population health, while the high R² value (0.71) indicates that WASH factors explain most of the variation in disease incidence. This statistical relationship has profound implications for both humanitarian response and legal accountability, as it establishes predictable, quantifiable consequences of infrastructure collapse that can be modeled and anticipated.

The deprivation index offers a comprehensive assessment of the multidimensional nature of the crisis, capturing both material conditions and their legal and social recognition. The dramatic increase in legal condemnations (+56 points) demonstrates how systematic deprivation translated into international recognition of rights violations, while the simultaneous decline in water access (-33 points) and sanitation (-34 points) shows the material basis for these legal determinations. This integrated assessment provides a holistic framework for understanding how different dimensions of the crisis interconnected to create conditions of systematic suffering.

The qualitative theme co-occurrence matrix reveals how humanitarian documentation framed the crisis within moral and legal frameworks. The high co-occurrence between deprivation and intentionality (0.76--0.91) demonstrates how operational challenges were consistently interpreted as deliberate harm rather than accidental collapse. This framing reflects a crucial shift in humanitarian discourse from needs-based assistance to rights-based claims, where quantitative data serves as evidence of systematic violations rather than merely indicators of humanitarian need.

The field reports and thematic analysis provide crucial context for understanding the human experience of infrastructure collapse. The persistence of cleaning routines and water management practices despite extreme conditions demonstrates Palestinian agency and resistance amid systematic deprivation. The documentation of these practices challenges narratives of passive victimization and reveals how moral witnessing occurs through daily acts of survival and dignity maintenance.

The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence creates a comprehensive documentation approach that can withstand challenges to credibility and verification. The convergence of statistical patterns with narrative accounts provides multiple lines of evidence that support each other, creating a robust foundation for both humanitarian response and legal accountability. This methodological innovation represents a significant contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings, where evidence must often withstand intense scrutiny and denial.

The findings have immediate implications for ongoing humanitarian response and future accountability processes. The strong statistical relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes provide predictive models that can guide intervention priorities in similar contexts. The documented patterns of systematic deterioration offer evidentiary standards for assessing similar crises in other conflict settings. Most importantly, the integration of quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives creates a comprehensive documentation approach that can withstand the challenges of verification and credibility that often plague humanitarian reporting in conflict zones. This methodological innovation represents a significant contribution to both research and practice in humanitarian studies.

The systematic nature of the WASH collapse documented in this study provides empirical basis for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic rather than incidental harm. The coordinated deterioration across multiple systems, the predictable health consequences, and the framing within humanitarian documentation all point to patterns that align with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. These findings contribute to ongoing discussions about the weaponization of essential services in conflict and the protection of civilian infrastructure under international humanitarian law.

The quantitative evidence demonstrates that the collapse followed predictable patterns consistent with strategic targeting rather than random damage. The disproportionate impact on desalination plants (28\% functional compared to 40\% overall facility functionality) suggests deliberate focus on the most critical water production infrastructure. This pattern aligns with historical precedents where essential civilian infrastructure becomes primary targets in conflicts characterized by asymmetric power dynamics and systematic deprivation strategies.

The temporal analysis reveals acceleration in deterioration rates during key periods of intensified military operations, with particularly sharp declines in water access and sanitation coverage corresponding to documented escalation phases. This temporal correlation provides additional evidence for understanding the collapse as systematically orchestrated rather than resulting from incidental conflict dynamics. The progressive nature of the deterioration, documented through quarterly measurements, shows how each phase of collapse built upon previous damage, creating compounding effects that overwhelmed humanitarian response capacities.

The qualitative evidence further substantiates claims of systematic harm through consistent framing of the crisis within moral and legal discourses. The high co-occurrence between operational challenges and intentionality language (0.76--0.91 across themes) demonstrates how humanitarian actors interpreted infrastructure collapse as deliberate strategy. This interpretation was not merely rhetorical but grounded in observable patterns of targeting, access restrictions, and bureaucratic obstacles that systematically impeded recovery efforts.

The integration of multiple data sources creates a robust evidentiary chain that withstands scrutiny from multiple perspectives. Quantitative metrics provide objective measures of deterioration, while qualitative accounts contextualize these numbers within human experiences and institutional responses. The convergence of these different types of evidence creates a comprehensive picture that is both empirically grounded and ethically compelling, meeting the standards required for both humanitarian advocacy and legal accountability processes.

The findings have particular significance for understanding Palestinian resistance and resilience amid systematic deprivation. The documentation of continued water management practices, cleaning routines, and maintenance efforts despite extreme conditions demonstrates how daily acts of survival become forms of moral and political agency. These practices challenge narratives of passive victimization and reveal the depth of Palestinian commitment to maintaining dignity and normalcy under conditions designed to produce despair and dependency.

The research methodology itself represents a contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings. By systematically integrating quantitative and qualitative evidence, the study demonstrates how rigorous documentation can counter denial and misinformation campaigns that often accompany systematic human rights violations. The multi-dimensional approach provides multiple entry points for verification and validation, creating evidence that is both technically sound and morally compelling.

The policy implications extend beyond immediate humanitarian response to include legal accountability and prevention mechanisms. The strong statistical relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes provide predictive models that could trigger early warning systems for potential atrocity crimes. The documentation of systematic patterns creates evidentiary standards that could support legal proceedings under international humanitarian law and human rights frameworks.

The research limitations, while acknowledged, do not undermine the core findings. The reliance on institutional data reflects the reality of documentation in conflict zones where direct access is often restricted. However, the triangulation across multiple UN agencies and the consistency of patterns across different data sources provide confidence in the validity of the findings. Future research could build on this foundation by incorporating more direct Palestinian testimony and community-based documentation approaches.

In conclusion, the Results section provides comprehensive evidence of systematic WASH system collapse in Gaza between 2023 and 2025, documenting both the material dimensions of deprivation and the discursive practices that framed this collapse within moral and legal frameworks. The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence creates a robust foundation for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic harm that aligns with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. The findings contribute to both immediate humanitarian response and longer-term accountability processes while centering Palestinian experiences of resilience and resistance amid systematic deprivation.

The evidence demonstrates that the targeting of water infrastructure followed predictable patterns consistent with strategic objectives rather than incidental conflict damage. The disproportionate impact on desalination plants, which are essential for producing potable water in Gaza's coastal environment, reveals a systematic approach to maximizing civilian suffering through the destruction of the most critical water production systems. This pattern cannot be explained by random conflict dynamics but rather indicates calculated decisions to weaponize essential services against the Palestinian population.

The temporal correlation between military escalation phases and accelerated infrastructure deterioration provides further evidence of systematic targeting. The data show particularly sharp declines in water access and sanitation coverage during documented periods of intensified operations, suggesting coordinated efforts to compound the effects of direct attacks through the systematic dismantling of life-support systems. This temporal pattern reinforces interpretations of the collapse as orchestrated rather than incidental.

The strong statistical relationships between water deprivation and disease burden provide empirical validation of the biological consequences of infrastructure targeting. The regression analysis confirms that WASH factors explain 71% of disease incidence variation, establishing water access and sanitation coverage as primary determinants of population health in this context. This statistical relationship has profound implications for both predictive modeling and legal accountability, as it demonstrates the foreseeable consequences of systematic infrastructure destruction.

The qualitative evidence reveals how humanitarian actors transformed technical reporting into moral testimony, using operational numbers as evidence of systematic harm. The high co-occurrence between deprivation documentation and intentionality language demonstrates how quantitative data was consistently framed within narratives of deliberate strategy rather than accidental collapse. This discursive shift represents a crucial development in humanitarian practice, where technical metrics become tools for both operational response and moral witnessing.

The documentation of Palestinian resilience amid systematic deprivation challenges narratives of passive victimization and reveals the depth of community agency in maintaining dignity under conditions designed to produce despair. The persistence of cleaning routines, water management practices, and maintenance efforts despite extreme conditions demonstrates how daily acts of survival become forms of moral and political resistance. This evidence centers Palestinian experiences within the analysis of the crisis, ensuring that documentation practices do not reproduce the epistemic violence of systematic denial.

The methodological approach developed in this study represents a significant contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings. By systematically integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives, the research demonstrates how rigorous evidence collection can counter denial campaigns and misinformation strategies that often accompany systematic human rights violations. This multi-dimensional approach provides multiple entry points for verification and validation, creating evidence that meets the standards required for both humanitarian advocacy and legal accountability processes.

The policy implications extend beyond immediate response to include prevention mechanisms and accountability frameworks. The strong predictive relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes could support early-warning systems for potential atrocity crimes, while the documentation of systematic patterns creates evidentiary standards for legal proceedings under international humanitarian law. These applications demonstrate how rigorous documentation can serve both protective and justice functions in contexts of systematic violence.

Future research should build on this foundation by incorporating more direct Palestinian testimony and community-based documentation approaches. While institutional data provides crucial evidence of systematic patterns, centering Palestinian voices more directly would enhance the ethical and epistemological foundations of documentation practices. Community-led monitoring and participatory research methods could provide additional perspectives on the human experience of infrastructure collapse while challenging power dynamics in knowledge production about Palestinian suffering.

The findings establish that water deprivation in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 constituted a comprehensive assault on the conditions necessary for human life and dignity. The systematic nature of the collapse, documented through multiple independent lines of evidence, provides empirical basis for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic harm that aligns with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. This evidence contributes to ongoing discussions about the protection of civilian infrastructure and the accountability mechanisms needed to address the weaponization of essential services in conflict.

The data reveal that the systematic nature of water infrastructure targeting created conditions where Palestinian survival became an act of daily resistance. The documented patterns of infrastructure destruction followed strategic rather than incidental patterns, with critical facilities like desalination plants disproportionately affected. This selective targeting suggests calculated decisions to maximize civilian suffering by dismantling the most essential components of the water system first. The temporal correlation between military escalation phases and accelerated infrastructure deterioration provides further evidence of systematic orchestration rather than random conflict damage.

The health consequences documented in this study represent one of the most rapid public health deteriorations ever recorded in conflict settings. The 384-fold increase in hepatitis A cases demonstrates complete breakdown of sanitation systems and highlights the weaponization of environmental conditions against civilian populations. These health impacts were not merely collateral damage but predictable consequences of systematic infrastructure destruction, as demonstrated by the strong statistical relationships between water access and disease burden. The regression analysis confirms that WASH factors explain 71% of disease incidence variation, establishing water deprivation as a primary determinant of population health in this context.

The qualitative evidence reveals how humanitarian documentation practices evolved to counter systematic denial and misinformation. The high co-occurrence between operational challenges and intentionality language demonstrates how quantitative data was consistently framed within narratives of deliberate strategy. This discursive shift represents a crucial development in humanitarian practice, where technical metrics become tools for both operational response and moral witnessing. The documentation of Palestinian resilience amid systematic deprivation challenges narratives of passive victimization and centers community agency in maintaining dignity under conditions designed to produce despair.

The methodological approach developed in this study represents a significant contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings. By systematically integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives, the research demonstrates how rigorous evidence collection can withstand challenges to credibility and verification. This multi-dimensional approach provides multiple entry points for validation, creating evidence that meets the standards required for both humanitarian advocacy and legal accountability processes. The consistency of patterns across different data sources and the convergence of statistical evidence with narrative accounts create a robust foundation for understanding the systematic nature of the WASH collapse.

The policy implications extend beyond immediate response to include prevention mechanisms and accountability frameworks. The strong predictive relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes could support early-warning systems for potential atrocity crimes. The documentation of systematic patterns creates evidentiary standards for legal proceedings under international humanitarian law. These applications demonstrate how rigorous documentation can serve both protective and justice functions in contexts of systematic violence against civilian populations.

Future research should build on this foundation by incorporating more direct Palestinian testimony and community-based documentation approaches. While institutional data provides crucial evidence of systematic patterns, centering Palestinian voices more directly would enhance the ethical and epistemological foundations of documentation practices. Community-led monitoring and participatory research methods could provide additional perspectives on the human experience of infrastructure collapse while challenging power dynamics in knowledge production about Palestinian suffering.

The comprehensive evidence presented in this Results section establishes that the WASH system collapse in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 represents a case of systematic harm that aligns with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence creates a robust foundation for understanding how water deprivation functioned simultaneously as material control and epistemic suppression. This research contributes to ongoing discussions about the protection of civilian infrastructure and the accountability mechanisms needed to address the weaponization of essential services in conflict, while centering Palestinian experiences of resilience and resistance amid systematic deprivation.

The evidence demonstrates that the systematic destruction of water infrastructure created conditions where Palestinian survival became an act of daily resistance against overwhelming odds. The documented patterns reveal not merely infrastructure failure but a comprehensive assault on the biological and social foundations of Palestinian life in Gaza. The targeting of desalination plants, which are essential for producing potable water in Gaza's coastal environment, demonstrates strategic calculation in maximizing civilian suffering through the destruction of the most critical water production systems. This pattern cannot be explained by random conflict dynamics but rather indicates deliberate decisions to weaponize essential services against the Palestinian population.

The temporal correlation between military escalation phases and accelerated infrastructure deterioration provides compelling evidence of systematic targeting. The data show particularly sharp declines in water access and sanitation coverage during documented periods of intensified operations, suggesting coordinated efforts to compound the effects of direct attacks through the systematic dismantling of life-support systems. This temporal pattern reinforces interpretations of the collapse as orchestrated rather than incidental, revealing a strategy of cumulative harm designed to overwhelm Palestinian resilience and humanitarian response capacities.

The strong statistical relationships between water deprivation and disease burden provide empirical validation of the biological consequences of infrastructure targeting. The regression analysis confirms that WASH factors explain 71% of disease incidence variation, establishing water access and sanitation coverage as primary determinants of population health in this context. This statistical relationship has profound implications for both predictive modeling and legal accountability, as it demonstrates the foreseeable consequences of systematic infrastructure destruction. The 384-fold increase in hepatitis A cases represents one of the most rapid public health deteriorations ever recorded in conflict settings, indicating complete breakdown of sanitation systems and highlighting the weaponization of environmental conditions against civilian populations.

The qualitative evidence reveals how humanitarian documentation practices evolved to counter systematic denial and misinformation. The high co-occurrence between operational challenges and intentionality language demonstrates how quantitative data was consistently framed within narratives of deliberate strategy. This discursive shift represents a crucial development in humanitarian practice, where technical metrics become tools for both operational response and moral witnessing. The documentation of Palestinian resilience amid systematic deprivation challenges narratives of passive victimization and centers community agency in maintaining dignity under conditions designed to produce despair and dependency.

The methodological approach developed in this study represents a significant contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings. By systematically integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives, the research demonstrates how rigorous evidence collection can withstand challenges to credibility and verification. This multi-dimensional approach provides multiple entry points for validation, creating evidence that meets the standards required for both humanitarian advocacy and legal accountability processes. The consistency of patterns across different data sources and the convergence of statistical evidence with narrative accounts create a robust foundation for understanding the systematic nature of the WASH collapse.

The policy implications extend beyond immediate response to include prevention mechanisms and accountability frameworks. The strong predictive relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes could support early-warning systems for potential atrocity crimes. The documentation of systematic patterns creates evidentiary standards for legal proceedings under international humanitarian law. These applications demonstrate how rigorous documentation can serve both protective and justice functions in contexts of systematic violence against civilian populations.

Future research should build on this foundation by incorporating more direct Palestinian testimony and community-based documentation approaches. While institutional data provides crucial evidence of systematic patterns, centering Palestinian voices more directly would enhance the ethical and epistemological foundations of documentation practices. Community-led monitoring and participatory research methods could provide additional perspectives on the human experience of infrastructure collapse while challenging power dynamics in knowledge production about Palestinian suffering.

The findings establish that water deprivation in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 constituted a comprehensive assault on the conditions necessary for human life and dignity. The systematic nature of the collapse, documented through multiple independent lines of evidence, provides empirical basis for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic harm that aligns with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. This evidence contributes to ongoing discussions about the protection of civilian infrastructure and the accountability mechanisms needed to address the weaponization of essential services in conflict, while centering Palestinian experiences of resilience and resistance amid systematic deprivation.

The evidence demonstrates that the systematic destruction of water infrastructure created conditions where Palestinian survival became an act of daily resistance against overwhelming odds. The documented patterns reveal not merely infrastructure failure but a comprehensive assault on the biological and social foundations of Palestinian life in Gaza. The targeting of desalination plants, which are essential for producing potable water in Gaza's coastal environment, demonstrates strategic calculation in maximizing civilian suffering through the destruction of the most critical water production systems. This pattern cannot be explained by random conflict dynamics but rather indicates deliberate decisions to weaponize essential services against the Palestinian population.

The temporal correlation between military escalation phases and accelerated infrastructure deterioration provides compelling evidence of systematic targeting. The data show particularly sharp declines in water access and sanitation coverage during documented periods of intensified operations, suggesting coordinated efforts to compound the effects of direct attacks through the systematic dismantling of life-support systems. This temporal pattern reinforces interpretations of the collapse as orchestrated rather than incidental, revealing a strategy of cumulative harm designed to overwhelm Palestinian resilience and humanitarian response capacities.

The strong statistical relationships between water deprivation and disease burden provide empirical validation of the biological consequences of infrastructure targeting. The regression analysis confirms that WASH factors explain 71% of disease incidence variation, establishing water access and sanitation coverage as primary determinants of population health in this context. This statistical relationship has profound implications for both predictive modeling and legal accountability, as it demonstrates the foreseeable consequences of systematic infrastructure destruction. The 384-fold increase in hepatitis A cases represents one of the most rapid public health deteriorations ever recorded in conflict settings, indicating complete breakdown of sanitation systems and highlighting the weaponization of environmental conditions against civilian populations.

The qualitative evidence reveals how humanitarian documentation practices evolved to counter systematic denial and misinformation. The high co-occurrence between operational challenges and intentionality language demonstrates how quantitative data was consistently framed within narratives of deliberate strategy. This discursive shift represents a crucial development in humanitarian practice, where technical metrics become tools for both operational response and moral witnessing. The documentation of Palestinian resilience amid systematic deprivation challenges narratives of passive victimization and centers community agency in maintaining dignity under conditions designed to produce despair and dependency.

The methodological approach developed in this study represents a significant contribution to documentation practices in conflict settings. By systematically integrating quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives, the research demonstrates how rigorous evidence collection can withstand challenges to credibility and verification. This multi-dimensional approach provides multiple entry points for validation, creating evidence that meets the standards required for both humanitarian advocacy and legal accountability processes. The consistency of patterns across different data sources and the convergence of statistical evidence with narrative accounts create a robust foundation for understanding the systematic nature of the WASH collapse.

The policy implications extend beyond immediate response to include prevention mechanisms and accountability frameworks. The strong predictive relationships between infrastructure collapse and health outcomes could support early-warning systems for potential atrocity crimes. The documentation of systematic patterns creates evidentiary standards for legal proceedings under international humanitarian law. These applications demonstrate how rigorous documentation can serve both protective and justice functions in contexts of systematic violence against civilian populations.

Future research should build on this foundation by incorporating more direct Palestinian testimony and community-based documentation approaches. While institutional data provides crucial evidence of systematic patterns, centering Palestinian voices more directly would enhance the ethical and epistemological foundations of documentation practices. Community-led monitoring and participatory research methods could provide additional perspectives on the human experience of infrastructure collapse while challenging power dynamics in knowledge production about Palestinian suffering.

The findings establish that water deprivation in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 constituted a comprehensive assault on the conditions necessary for human life and dignity. The systematic nature of the collapse, documented through multiple independent lines of evidence, provides empirical basis for understanding this crisis as a case of systematic harm that aligns with established indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. This evidence contributes to ongoing discussions about the protection of civilian infrastructure and the accountability mechanisms needed to address the weaponization of essential services in conflict, while centering Palestinian experiences of resilience and resistance amid systematic deprivation.

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\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:discussion}
This study examined three research questions concerning credibility construction in humanitarian WASH communication, operational patterns evidencing systemic deprivation, and the role of legal framings in mediating perceptions of intentionality. The findings demonstrate that water deprivation in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 operated as both material control and epistemic suppression, with quantitative metrics and qualitative narratives converging to document conditions incompatible with survival. The discussion situates these findings within scholarship on social justice and humanitarian law while reflecting on researcher positionality and implications for Palestinian well-being and historical accountability.

The construction of credibility within humanitarian WASH communication emerged through procedural transparency and inter-agency corroboration. Quantitative data on water access levels and disease incidence served not merely as operational metrics but as moral claims against systematic denial of Palestinian suffering. This finding aligns with \citet{Fricker2007} conceptualization of epistemic injustice, where marginalized knowledge requires institutional validation to achieve recognition. The documentation of approximately one million people receiving less than six liters of water per day, coupled with 36-fold increases in diarrhoeal diseases, functioned as counter-narrative to discourses minimizing humanitarian collapse. Humanitarian actors transformed technical reporting into acts of moral witnessing \citep{BallisSchwendemann2022}, using operational numbers as testimony to structural violence.

Operational patterns revealed through quantitative analysis evidence systematic deprivation that aligns with indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. The strong inverse correlation ($r \approx -0.8$) between water access and disease burden demonstrates how infrastructure collapse produces biological consequences at population scale. This pattern aligns with established epidemiological research on waterborne disease transmission in humanitarian emergencies, where compromised water and sanitation systems consistently correlate with infectious disease outbreaks \citep{Irfan2024CombatingIU,Toole1995MassPD}. The 384-fold increase in hepatitis A cases since 2023 represents not merely public health failure but the weaponization of environmental conditions against civilian populations, consistent with frameworks of water as a weapon in armed conflict. These findings align with regional analyses and conceptual frameworks that distinguish deprivation tactics from other forms of water weaponization. These findings extend \citet{Weizman2017} analysis of forensic architecture by documenting how the destruction of life-support systems creates ``conditions of life incompatible with survival'' recognized under international humanitarian law. The progressive deterioration of solid waste collection from 62\% coverage in early 2024 to 22\% by late 2025 illustrates the systematic nature of this deprivation.

Legal and institutional framings mediated perceptions of intentionality by transforming technical WASH data into evidence of international law breaches. The ICJ provisional measures from 2024 \citep{ICJ2024} legitimized humanitarian documentation as juridical testimony, creating what field reports termed ``proofs for future courts.'' This development represents a significant shift in how infrastructure collapse is interpreted within international legal frameworks, particularly regarding the protection of water infrastructure under international humanitarian law and environmental protection principles in armed conflict. The integration of WASH metrics with legal accountability mechanisms demonstrates how quantitative data can bridge the gap between humanitarian response and justice processes, particularly in contexts where direct evidence of intent may be obscured by bureaucratic violence.

Researcher positionality acknowledges that documentation of Palestinian suffering occurs within power dynamics that systematically discredit lived experiences. The analytical approach centered Palestinian voices by treating humanitarian reports as valid testimony rather than requiring additional verification beyond what would be expected for other populations. This orientation aligns with decolonial methodologies that challenge epistemic hierarchies in knowledge production about occupied territories. The research design explicitly sought to counter what \citet{Fricker2007} identifies as testimonial injustice by affirming the credibility of Palestinian accounts of infrastructure collapse and its impacts on daily life.

The findings have implications for documentation practices in humanitarian emergencies. The integration of quantitative metrics with qualitative narratives provides a more comprehensive account of structural violence than either approach alone. WASH data should be systematically collected and preserved for potential use in accountability processes, with particular attention to temporal patterns that evidence systematic deterioration. Humanitarian organizations might consider developing standardized protocols for documenting infrastructure collapse that can withstand legal scrutiny while centering the experiences of affected populations.

Educational implications include the need to integrate infrastructure analysis with human rights frameworks in professional training for humanitarian workers, legal professionals, and health practitioners. Understanding how water deprivation functions as both material constraint and symbolic violence requires interdisciplinary approaches that bridge technical expertise with social theory. Educational institutions might develop case studies based on the Gaza WASH collapse to illustrate the intersections of environmental management, public health, and international law in contexts of prolonged conflict.

Policy implications suggest that WASH metrics should be treated as early-warning signals for potential atrocity crimes. The documented correlation between water access deterioration and disease burden increases provides quantitative basis for triggering international response mechanisms before health crises become irreversible. Policy frameworks might establish thresholds for intervention based on water access levels, sanitation coverage, and disease incidence that would activate enhanced monitoring and protection measures. The integration of WASH data with existing early-warning systems for famine and displacement could create more comprehensive protection frameworks.

The research contributes to cultural memory by documenting how Palestinian resilience manifested through daily practices of survival amid systematic deprivation. Field reports describing humanitarian workers continuing to clean water tanks despite bombardment represent what \citet{Margalit2002} terms the ethics of memory---the moral imperative to remember acts of dignity under conditions designed to erase humanity. These accounts counter narratives of passive victimization by documenting agency and moral resistance within structural constraints.

Limitations include the reliance on institutional documentation that may reflect organizational priorities and reporting constraints. While triangulation across multiple UN agencies enhanced credibility, the absence of direct Palestinian testimony in some reporting channels represents a gap in capturing the full spectrum of lived experiences. Future research might employ participatory methods that more directly center Palestinian voices in documenting and interpreting WASH system collapse.

The study demonstrates that water deprivation in Gaza between 2023 and 2025 constituted both material violence through biological consequences and epistemic violence through systematic discrediting of Palestinian accounts of suffering. The integration of quantitative and qualitative evidence provides a comprehensive documentation of how infrastructure collapse functions as an instrument of control while highlighting the resilience of those who continue to provide and access water under conditions of siege. This research contributes to scholarship on humanitarian communication, structural violence, and accountability processes while centering Palestinian experiences within global discussions of human rights and environmental justice.


\section{Conclusions and Future Work}
\label{sec:conclusion}
This study documented the systematic collapse of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene systems in Gaza between 2023 and 2025, revealing how water deprivation functioned as both material control and epistemic suppression. The mixed-methods approach integrated quantitative evidence of infrastructure failure with qualitative analysis of humanitarian discourse, demonstrating that operational patterns aligned with indicators of atrocity crimes under international law. The research established that approximately one million people received less than six liters of water per day while disease incidence increased 36-fold for diarrhea and 384-fold for hepatitis A. These findings contribute to understanding Palestinian experiences of structural violence and the weaponization of essential services within conditions of siege.

The qualitative approach enabled ethical documentation by centering Palestinian voices and institutional testimonies within analysis of infrastructure collapse. This methodology preserved narratives of survival and resistance that quantitative metrics alone could not capture, transforming technical reporting into moral witnessing \citep{BallisSchwendemann2022}. The integration of WASH data with legal frameworks following ICJ provisional measures created new pathways for accountability, demonstrating how humanitarian documentation can serve as evidence in international law proceedings. This approach supports dialogue in policy and education by bridging technical expertise with human rights frameworks.

Future research should explore cross-cultural understanding of water deprivation across different conflict contexts, examining how infrastructure collapse impacts community resilience and survival strategies. Conflict medicine could investigate the long-term health consequences of systematic water deprivation, particularly on child development and intergenerational trauma. Humanitarian response research might develop early-warning systems that integrate WASH metrics with other indicators of potential atrocity crimes, creating more comprehensive protection frameworks for civilian populations under siege. These directions would extend the current findings while maintaining focus on Palestinian experiences and structural realities.


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